7/1/2012 Heat and mass transfer | Deepak mehta

HEAT & MASS TRANSFER Fourier's law of heat conduction Fourier's law The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the time ra te of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area, at right angles to that gradient, through wh ich the heat is flowing. We can state this law in two equivalent forms: the inte gral form, in which we look at the amount of energy flowing into or out of a bod y as a whole, and the differential form, in which we look at the flow rates or f luxes of energy locally. Newton's law of cooling is a discrete analog of Fourier's law, while Ohm's law i s the electrical analogue of Fourier's law. Differential form The differential form of Fourier's Law of thermal conduction shows that the loca l heat flux density, , is equal to the product of thermal conductivity, , and the negative local temperature gradient, . The heat flux density is the amount of energy that flows through a unit area per unit time. where (including the SI units) is the local heat flux, Wm2 is the material's conductivity, Wm1K1, is the temperature gradient, Km1. The thermal conductivity, , is often treated as a constant, though this is not always true. While the thermal conductivity of a material generally varies with temperature, the variation can be small over a significant range of temperatures for some common materials. In anisotropic materials, the thermal conductivity t ypically varies with orientation; in this case is represented by a second order tensor. In nonuniform materials, varies with spatial location. For many simple applications, Fourier's law is used in its one dimensional form. In the x direction, Integral form By integrating the differential form over the material's total surface , we arr ive at the integral form of Fourier's law: where (including the SI units) : is the amount of heat transferred per unit time (in W) and : is an oriented surface area element (in m2) The above differential equation, when integrated for a homogeneous material of 1 D geometry between two endpoints at constant temperature, gives the heat flow r ate as:

where A is the cross sectional surface area, is the temperature difference between the ends, is the distance between the ends. This law forms the basis for the derivation of the heat equation. The units of k, the thermal conductivity, can be found from eqn. (5.1) by transp osing the terms k = dQ/dt x 1/A x 1/(dT/dx) = J s 1 x m 2 x 1/(C m 1) = J m 1 s 1 C 1

Equation (5.1) is known as the Fourier equation for heat conduction. Note: Heat flows from a hotter to a colder body, that is in the direction of the negative temperature gradient. Thus a minus sign should appear in the Fourier e quation. However, in simple problems the direction of heat flow is obvious and t he minus sign is considered to be confusing rather than helpful, so it has not b een used. Heat Conductances in Series Frequently in heat conduction, heat passes through several consecutive layers of different materials. For example, in a cold store wall, heat might pass through brick, plaster, wood and cork. In this case, eqn. (5.2) can be applied to each layer. This is illustrated in Fi g. 5.2. Figure 5.2 Heat conductances in series In the steady state, the same quantity of heat per unit time must pass through e ach layer. q = A1 T1k1/x1 = A2 T2k2/x2 = A3 T3k3/x3 = .. If the areas are the same, A1 = A2 = A3 = .. = A q = A T1k1/x1 = A T2k2/x2 = A T3k3/x3 = .. So A T1 = q(x1/k1) and A T2 = q(x2/k2) and A T3 = q(x3/k3)... A T1 + A T2 + A T3 + = q(x1/k1) + q(x2/k2) +q(x3/k3) + A( T1 + T2 + T3 + ..) = q(x1/k1 + x2/k2 +x3/k3 + ) The sum of the temperature differences over each layer is equal to the differenc e in temperature of the two outside surfaces of the complete system, i.e. T1 + T2 + T3 + = T and since k1/x1 is equal to the conductance of the material in the first layer, C1, and k2/x2 is equal to the conductance of the material in the second layer C2 , x1/k1 + x2/k2 + x3/k3 + ... = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 = 1/U where U = the overall conductance for the combined layers, in J m 2 s 1 C 1 Therefore A T = q(1/U) And so q = UA T (5.3) This is of the same form as eqn (5.2) but extended to cover the composite slab. U is called the overall heat transfer coefficient, as it can also include combin ations involving the other methods of heat transfer convection and radiation. EXAMPLE 5.2. Heat transfer in cold store wall of brick, concrete and cork A cold store has a wall comprising 11 cm of brick on the outside, then 7.5 cm of concrete and then 10 cm of cork. The mean temperature within the store is maint ained at 18C and the mean temperature of the outside surface of the wall is 18C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer through the wall. The appropriate thermal co nductivities are for brick, concrete and cork, respectively 0.69, 0.76 and 0.043 J m 1 s 1 C 1. Determine also the temperature at the interfaces between the concrete and cork l ayers, and the brick and concrete layers. For brick x1/k1 = 0.11/0.69 = 0.16. For concrete x2/k2 = 0.075/0.76 = 0.10. For cork x3/k3 = 0.10/0.043 = 2.33 . But 1/U = x1/k1 + x2/k2 + x3/k3 = 0.16 + 0.10 + 2.33 = 2.59 Therefore U = 0.38 J m 2 s 1C 1 T = 18 ( 18) = 36C, A = 1 m2

q = UA T = 0.38 x 1 x 36 = 13.7 J s 1 Further, q = A3 T3k3/x3 and for the cork wall A3 = 1 m2, x3/k3 = 2.33 and q = 13.7 J s 1 Therefore 13.7 = 1 x T3 x 1/2.33 from rearranging eqn. (5.2) T3 = 32C. But T3 is the difference between the temperature of the cork/concrete surface Tc and the temperature of the cork surface inside the cold store. Therefore Tc ( 18) = 32 where Tc is the temperature at the cork/concrete surface and so Tc = 14C. If T1 is the difference between the temperature of the brick/concrete surface, Tb , and the temperature of the external air. Then 13.7 = 1 x T1 x 1/ 0.16 = 6.25 T1 Therefore 18 Tb = T1 = 13.7/6.25 = 2.2 so Tb = 15.8 C Working it through shows approximate boundary temperatures: air/brick 18C,brick/c oncrete 16C, concrete/cork 14C, cork/air 18C This shows that almost all of the temperature difference occurs across the insul ation (cork): and the actual intermediate temperatures can be significant especi ally if they lie below the temperature at which the atmospheric air condenses, o r freezes. Thermal conductivity measurement There are a number of possible ways to measure thermal conductivity, each of the m suitable for a limited range of materials, depending on the thermal properties and the medium temperature. Two classes of methods exist to measure the thermal conductivity of a sample: steady state and non steady state (or transient) meth ods. Steady state methods In general, steady state techniques perform a measurement when the temperature o f the material measured does not change with time. This makes the signal analysi s straightforward (steady state implies constant signals). The disadvantage is t hat a well engineered experimental setup is usually needed. In geology and geophysics, the most common method for consolidated rock samples is the divided bar. There are various modifications to these devices depending o n the temperatures and pressures needed as well as sample sizes. A sample of unk nown conductivity is placed between two samples of known conductivity (usually b rass plates). The setup is usually vertical with the hot brass plate at the top, the sample in between then the cold brass plate at the bottom. Heat is supplied at the top and made to move downwards to stop any convection within the sample. Measurements are taken after the sample has reached to the steady state (with z ero heat gradient or constant heat over entire sample), this usually takes about 10 minutes. Transient methods The transient techniques perform a measurement during the process of heating up. The advantage is that measurements can be made relatively quickly. Transient me thods are usually carried out by needle probes. Non steady state methods to measure the thermal conductivity do not require the signal to obtain a constant value. Instead, the signal is studied as a function of time. The advantage of these methods is that they can in general be performed more quickly, since there is no need to wait for a steady state situation. The disadvantage is that the mathematical analysis of the data is in general more di fficult. Transient plane source method Transient Plane Source Method, a plane sensor, a special mathematical model desc ribing the heat conductivity, combined with electronics, enables the method to b e used to measure Thermal Transport Properties. It covers a thermal conductivity

range of 45 orders of magnitude and can be used for measuring various kinds of m aterials, such as solids, liquid, paste and thin films etc. In 2008 it was appro ved as an ISO standard for measuring thermal transport properties of polymers (N ovember 2008). This TPS standard also covers the use of this method to test both isotropic as well anisotropic materials. The Transient Plane Source requires two samples in sandwiching the sensor betwee n two pieces of a homogeneous material. Extended use of transient plane source t esting of heterogeneous material is possible with proper selection of sensor siz e to maximize sample penetration. The same method can also be used in a single s ided configuration, with the introduction of a measured backing insulation mater ial. The probe is a flat sensor with a continuous double spiral of electrically condu cting nickel (Ni) metal etched out of thin foil and clad between two layers of p olyimide film Kapton. The thin Kapton provides electrical insulation and mechani cal stability to the sensor. The sensor is placed between the surfaces of two sa mple pieces of the sample to be measured. During the measurement a current passe s through the nickel and creates an increase in temperature. The heat generated dissipates through the sample on either side of the sensor at a rate depending o n the thermal transport characteristics of the material. By recording temperatur e vs. time response in the sensor, the characteristics of the material can be ca lculated. Modified transient plane source (MTPS) method A variation of the above method is the Modified Transient Plane Source Method (M TPS) developed by Nancy Mathis of the University of New Brunswick and commercial ized through her company Mathis Instruments Ltd (now C Therm Technologies Ltd.). The device uses a one sided, interfacial, heat reflectance sensor that applies a momentary, constant heat source to the sample. The difference between this met hod and traditional transient plane source technique described above is that the heating element is supported on a backing, which provides mechanical support, e lectrical insulation and thermal insulation. This modification provides a one si ded interfacial measurement in offering maximum flexibility in testing liquids, powders, pastes and solids. Transient line source method Series of needle probes used for transient line source measurements. Photo shows , from left to right, models TP02, TP08, a ballpoint for purposes of size compar ison, TP03 and TP09 The physical model behind this method is the infinite line source with constant power per unit length. The temperature profile at a distance at time is as fo llows where is the power per unit length, in [Wm1] is the thermal conductivity of the sample, in [Wm1K1] is the exponential integral, a transcendent mathematical function is the radial distance to the line source is the thermal diffusivity, in [m2s1] is the amount of time that has passed since heating has started, in [s] When performing an experiment, one measures the temperature at a point at fixed distance, and follows that temperature in time. For large times, the exponential integral can be approximated by making use of the following relation where is the Euler gamma constant This leads to the following expression Note that the first term in the brackets on the RHS is a constant, while the sec ond term goes as the inverse of time and therefore drops out fairly quickly. Thu s if the probe temperature is plotted versus the natural logarithm of time, the

thermal conductivity can be determined from the slope given knowledge of Q, if t he initial data, before the diffusivity term becomes negligible, are ignored. Ty pically this means ignorming the first 60 to 120 seconds of data and measuring f or 600 to 1200 seconds. Laser Flash Method The laser flash method is used to measure thermal diffusivity of a thin disc in the thickness direction. This method is based upon the measurement of the temper ature rise at the rear face of the thin disc specimen produced by a short energy pulse on the front face. With a reference sample specific heat can be achieved and with known density the thermal conductivity results as follows where is the thermal conductivity of the sample, in [Wm1K1] is the thermal diffusivity of the sample, in [m2 s1] is the specific heat of the sample, in [Jkg1K1] is the density of the sample, in [kgm3] It is suitable for a multiplicity of different materials over a broad temperatur e range ( 120C to 2800C) [1]. 3-method One popular technique for thermoelectric materials is a 3-method, in which thin m etal strip evaporated on the sample acts as heat source and a thermometer. The h eater is driven with AC current at frequency , which causes heat source to oscill ate at frequency 2. By monitoring AC voltage as a function of the frequency of th e applied AC current thermal conductivity can be determined. The measured voltag e will contain both and 3 components, because the Joule heating of the film cause s small perturbation to its resistance with frequency 2 as stated in the followin g equation , C0 is constant. Thermal conductivity is determined by the linear s lope of T vs. log() curve. The main advantages of the 3-method are minimization of radiation effects and easier acquisition of the temperature dependence of the th ermal conductivity than in the steady state techniques. Although some expertise in thin film patterning and microlithography is required, this technique is cons idered as the best pseudo contact method available. [2](ch23) Other methods For good conductors of heat, Searle's bar method can be used[3]. For poor conduc tors of heat, Lees' disc method can be used[4]. Thermoreflectance Main article: Time domain thermoreflectance Thermoreflectance is a method by which the thermal properties of a material can be measured, most importantly thermal conductivity. This method can be applied m ost notably to thin film materials (up to hundreds of nanometers thick), which h ave properties that vary greatly when compared to the same materials in bulk. Th e idea behind this technique is that once a material is heated up, the change in the reflectance of the surface can be utilized to derive the thermal properties . The reflectivity is measured with respect to time, and the data received can b e matched to a model which contain coefficients that correspond to thermal prope rties. Measuring devices A thermal conductance tester, one of the instruments of gemology, determines if gems are genuine diamonds using diamond's uniquely high thermal conductivity. The Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity Temperature affects thermal conductivity. The atoms and molecules in all substances are moving either vibrating in soli ds or actually moving in liquids and gases. Temperature measures their average k inetic energy or energy of motion. Thermal conductivity changes with temperature . Types Thermal conductivity describes the rate at which a substance conducts heat. Meta ls are common examples of good heat conductors. Substances that conduct heat poo rly, by contrast, are called insulators. Thermal conductivity is defined in unit

s of watts per meter Kelvins, where Kelvins are a measure of temperature. To con vert from degrees Celsius to Kelvins, add 273.15. Effects Thermal conductivity is relatively constant over a narrow temperature range. As the temperature increases, however, the rate at which particles in the substance are moving increases, and the rate at which heat is transferred typically incre ases as well. Considerations Metals are a common example of substances that transmit heat well. In metals, th e thermal conductivity increases with temperature, while electrical conductivity decreases. The thermal conductivity for a metal divided by the electrical condu ctivity is equal to the temperature times L, where L is a constant equal to 2.45 times 10 to the 8 watts ohms divided by Kelvins squared. Heat exchanger An interchangeable plate heat exchanger Tubular heat exchanger A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to another. The media may be separated by a solid wall, so that they never mix, or they may be in direct contact.[1] They are widely used in space he ating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochem ical plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing, and sewage treatment. The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal combustion engi ne in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant flows through radiator c oils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and heats the incomin g air. Flow arrangement Countercurrent (A) and parallel (B) flows Fig. 1: Shell and tube heat exchanger, single pass (11 parallel flow) Fig. 2: Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2 pass tube side (12 crossflow) Fig. 3: Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2 pass shell side, 2 pass tube side (2 2 countercurrent) There are two primary classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement. In parallel flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchang er at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In counter flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current design is the most efficient, in that it can transfer the mo st heat from the heat (transfer) medium due to the fact that the average tempera ture difference along any unit length is greater. See countercurrent exchange. I n a cross flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one an other through the exchanger. For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface area a nd may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence. The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with position, b ut an appropriate mean temperature can be defined. In most simple systems this i s the "log mean temperature difference" (LMTD). Sometimes direct knowledge of th e LMTD is not available and the NTU method is used. Leaching (chemistry) Leaching Many Biological organic and inorganic substances occur in a mixture of different components in a solid. In order to separate the desired solute constituent or r

emove an undesirable solute component from the solid phase, the solid is brought into contact with a liquid. The solid and liquid are in contact and the solute or solutes can diffuse from the solid into the solvent, resulting in separation of the components originally in the solid. This separation process is called liq uid solid leaching or simply 'leaching'. Because in leaching the solute is being extracted from the solid this is also called extraction. In leaching, when an u ndesirable component is removed from a solid with water, the process is called w ashing.[1] Leaching Processes for biological substances In the biological and food process ing industries, many products are separated from their original natural structur e by liquid solid leaching. An important process for example is the leaching of sugar from sugar beets with hot water. In the production of vegetable oils, orga nic solvents such as hexane, acetone, and/or ether are used to extract oil from nuts beans and seeds. In the pharmaceutical industry, many different pharmaceutical products are obtai ned by leaching plant roots, leaves, and stems.[2] Leaching Processes for inorganic and organic materials. Leaching is extensively used in metal processing industries. The useful metal may occur in mixtures wit h very large amounts of undesirable constituents, and leaching is used to remove the metals as soluble salts.[3] The use of acids is prevalent in the metal processing industry, Sulfates are nor mally used to remove metals from the solid phase, these produce harmful environm ental byproducts such as sulfates. Shrinking Core Model As mentioned above when leaching a solid with a liquid the desired solid goes to the liquid phase while undesired solid remains. The remov al of the solid as the liquid dissolves into the particle leads to a diameter of unleached core that shrinks with time. A mathematical model can be used for thi s process. [4] The shrinking core model when diffusion through the leached shell is controlling . This formula is derived using Fick's law of diffusion taking pore diffusion as r ate limiting step. Environmentally friendly leaching Some recent work has been done to see if orga nic acids can be used to leach lithium and cobalt from spent batteries with some success. In the article Environmental friendly leaching reagent for Cobalt and Lithium recovery experiments were performed with varying temperatures and concen trations of DL Malic acid. The group found that the optimal conditions were 2.0 Moles/Liter of organic acid at a temperature of 90 Celsius. The reaction had an overall efficiency exceeding 90% with no harmful byproducts. The group proposed the reaction as such 4LiCoO2(solid)+ 12C4H6O5(liquid) > 4LiC4H5O5(Liquid) + 4C o(C4H5O5)2 (liquid) + 6H2O (liquid) + O2(gas) [5] The same group of chemical engineers performed the same analysis with a differen t organic acid (citric acid) and found similar results with an optimal temperatu re and concentration of 90 Celsius and 1.5 Molar solution of Citric acid. [6] Possible reactions for leaching of spent batteries with Citric acid. Extraction Extraction may refer to: Extraction (album), an album by guitarist Greg Howe Extraction (chemistry), the separation of a substance from a matrix Extraction (military), the removal of someone from a hostile area to a secure lo cation Extraction (The Shield), an episode of the television series The Shield Extraction (wine), the amount of polyphenols leeched from the grape into the mus t Comedo extraction, a method of acne treatment Data extraction, the process of retrieving data out of data sources

 odorous o d

Dental extraction, the surgical removal of a tooth from the mouth Fragrance extraction, the process of obtaining fragrant oils and compounds from raw materials Resource extraction, the process of locating, acquiring and selling any resource Petroleum extraction, the process of recovering petroleum from the groun

HUMIDIFICATION Definitions Absolute humidity = mass of water held in a given volume of gas Relative humidity = amount of water vapour expressed as a percentage of the amou nt which that volume of gas could hold at the same temperature if it was fully s aturated Consequences of inadequate humidification destruction of cilia and damage to mucus glands disorganization and flattening of pseudostratified columnar epithelium and cuboi dal epithelium disorganization of basement membrane cytoplasmic and nuclear degeneration desquamation of cells mucosal ulceration reactive hyperaemia following damage Net result is impaired function of the mucociliary elevator. Damage to the basem ent membrane and the cells of the airway also leads to bronchiolar collapse and ultimately atelectasis Degree of damage is directly proportional to the duration of ventilation with dr y gases Consequences of excessive humidification mucosal heating and burns leading to pulmonary oedema and airway stricture forma tion (heated humidifiers) f inspired gases are not heated but large amounts of water are administered to t he respiratory tract may be a fall in body temperature due to loss of latent hea t of evaporation water overload impaired function of mucociliary elevator. May result from an increased volume o f mucus requiring clearance so that the capacity of the mucociliary elevator may be exceeded Tolerated range of humidification difficult to determine under normal conditions isothermic saturation boundary (ie point at which inspir ed air reaches 37 C and 100% saturation) is just below carina reproducing an isothermic boundary at the same level in ill patient may be ideal but not essential in all situations absolute humidity >33 g/m3 may be needed to maintain normal mucociliary function Ideal humidifier Should include following features: inspired gas delivered into trachea at 32 36 C with water content of 33 43 g/cubi c metre (43 = 100% humidity at 37 ) temperature constant at set temperature humidification and temperature unaffected by large range of FGF, especially high flows simple to use and service humidification can be provided for any mixture of inspired gas can be used with spontaneous or controlled ventilation safety mechanisms and alarms against overheating, overhydration, and electrocuti on resistance, compliance and dead space do not adversely affect spontaneous breath ing inspired gas remains sterile

Cold water humidifier simple and cheap but inefficient newer models can achieve 100% relative humidity but gas is unheated or slightly cooled cannot provide adequate humidification for a patient whose airway is bypassed Hot water humidifiers inspired gas passed over (blow by) or through ("bubble" or "cascade") heated wat er reservoir gas leaving the resevoir contains high water content, often >43 g/m3 water bath temperature is thermostatically controlled to allow cooling along the tubing for an inspired relative humidity of 100% at 37 heated wire may be sited in delivery tubing to maintain preset gas termperature and humidity micro droplets have been reported with bubble humidifiers: may be a potential so urce of infection note that a drop in temperature of 1C occurs for every 10 cm of tubing beyond the end of the delivery hose should be used if secretions are thick or bloody, humidification is necessary fo r more than 4 days or for children or neonates disadvantages: o overheating malfunction may cause a rise in core temperature and excessi ve humidification o increased work of breathing: greater for Bennett cascade (bubble through ) than Fisher Paykel (blow by) humidifiers o infection due to colonization of reservoir by bacteria. Current evidence suggests that humidifiers are not an important source of nosocomial pneumonia o excessive condensate in circuit due to cooling of gases ("rain out") (ol der models) Heat and moisture exchanger eg Pall filter passive humidifiers not capable of producing same degree of humidification as hot water humidifiers consists of chamber containing a screen through which respiratory gases pass in both directions screen may consist of layers of wire mesh, block of hygroscopic foam or spiral o r corrugated aluminium foil or of chemically coated (often calcium chloride or l ithium chloride) paper during expiration warm moist expired gases pass through cooler drier screen and water vapour condenses. Specific heat of expired gases and latent heat of water warm screen. During inspiration relatively cooler and drier inspired gas is warm ed and humidified as it passes through the screen large pore size hygroscopic filters are less efficient bacterial filters but mor e efficient humidifiers than hydrophobic HMEs (eg Pall, Filtra therm). Some filt ers screen out as many as 99.9977% of bacterial organisms hygroscopic HMEs may be suitable for long term ventilation in selected adult pat ients as the majority of complications associated with HMEs (thick secretions an d endotracheal tube occlusion) occurred with less efficient HMEs disadvantages: o humidification may be inadequate o may impose additional work of breathing, especially at high flows. Press ure differential of up to 5 cmH2O not uncommon at flows of 60 l/min Other humidifiers Venturi/Bernoulli type, water jet type and ultrasonic nebulizers are actually ne bulizers rather than humidifiers "Hot rod" type: water fed onto a heated surface. Volume of water can be metered to ensure production of a certain degree of humidity at a given temperature Drying (food)

Flattened fish drying in the sun in Madagascar. Fish are preserved through such traditional methods as drying, smoking and salting.[1] This electric food dehydrator has a hot air blower that blows air through trays with foods on them. Pictured are mango and papaya slices being dried. Drying is a method of food preservation that works by removing water from the fo od, which inhibits the growth of microorganisms. Open air drying using sun and w ind has been practiced since ancient times to preserve food.[2] A solar or elect ric food dehydrator can greatly speed the drying process and ensure more consist ent results. Water is usually removed by evaporation (air drying, sun drying, sm oking or wind drying) but, in the case of freeze drying, food is first frozen an d then the water is removed by sublimation. Bacteria, yeasts and molds need the water in the food to grow, and drying effectively prevents them from surviving i n the food. Food types A collection of dried mushrooms A whole potato, sliced pieces (right), and dried sliced pieces (left) Many different foods are prepared by dehydration. Good examples are meat such as prosciutto (a.k.a. Parma ham), bresaola, and beef jerky. Dried and salted reind eer meat is a traditional Sami food. First the meat is soaked / pickled in saltw ater for a couple of days to guarantee the conservation of the meat. Then the me at is dried in the sun in spring when the air temperature is below zero. The dri ed meat can be further processed to make soup. Fruits change character completely[clarification needed] when dried: the plum be comes a prune, the grape a raisin; figs and dates are also transformed in new, d ifferent products, that can be eaten as they are or else after rehydration. Chil is are frequently dried. Home drying of vegetables, fruit and even meat (to prod uce jerky) can be carried out in the home employing sun drying or using electric al dehydrators (household appliance). Preservatives such as potassium metabisulp hite, or BHA, BHT for meat may be used. These preservatives are not required, ho wever dried products without these preservatives may required refrigerator or fr eezing to ensure a long period of storage. Freeze dried vegetables are often found in backpackers food, hunters, military, etc. The exception to this rule are bulbs, such as garlic and onion, which are o ften dried. Edible and psilocybin mushrooms, as well as other fungi, are also so metimes dried for preservation purposes, to affect the potency of chemical compo nents, or so they can be used as seasonings. For centuries, much of the European diet depended on dried cod, known as salt co d or bacalhau (with salt) or stockfish (without). It formed the main protein sou rce for the slaves on the West Indian plantations, and was a major economic forc e within the triangular trade. Dried shark meat, known as Hkarl, is a delicacy in Iceland. Grain drying Hundreds of millions of tonnes of wheat, corn, soybean, rice and other grains as sorghum, sunflower seeds, rapeseed/canola, barley, oats, etc., are dried in gra in dryers.[3] In the main agricultural countries, drying comprises the reduction of moisture from about 17 30%w/w to values between 8 and 15%w/w, depending on t he grain. The final moisture content for drying must be adequate for storage. Th e more oil the grain has, the lower its storage moisture content will be (though its initial moisture for drying will also be lower). Cereals are often dried to 14% w/w, while oilseeds, to 12.5% (soybeans), 8% (sunflower) and 9% (peanuts). Drying is carried out as a requisite for safe storage, in order to inhibit micro bial growth. However, low temperatures in storage are also highly recommended to avoid degradative reactions and, especially, the growth of insects and mites. A

good maximum storage temperature is about 18C. The largest dryers are normally u sed "Off farm", in elevators, and are of the continuous type: Mixed flow dryers are preferred in Europe, while Cross flow dryers in the USA. In Argentina, both types are commonly found. Continuous flow dryers may produce up to 100 metric to nnes of dried grain per hour. The depth of grain the air must traverse in contin uous dryers range from some 0.15 m in Mixed flow dryers to some 0.30 m in Cross Flow. Batch dryers are mainly used "On Farm", particularly in the USA and Europe . They normally consist of a bin, with heated air flowing horizontally from an i nternal cylinder through an inner perforated metal sheet, then through an annula r grain bed, some 0.50 m thick (coaxial with the internal cylinder) in radial di rection, and finally across the outer perforated metal sheet, before being disch arged to the atmosphere. The usual drying times range from 1 h to 4 h depending on how much water must be removed, type of grain, air temperature and the grain depth. In the USA, continuous counterflow dryers may be found on farm, adapting a bin to slowly drying grain fed at the top and removed at the bottom of the bin by a sweeping auger. Grain drying is an active area of manufacturing and resear ch. The performance of a dryer can be simulated with computer programs based on mathematical models that represent the phenomena involved in drying: physics, ph ysical chemistry, thermodynamics and heat and mass transfer. Most recently compu ter models have been used to predict product quality by achieving a compromise b etween drying rate, energy consumption, and grain quality. A typical quality par ameter in wheat drying is breadmaking quality and germination percentage whose r eductions in \ are somewhat related. Methods : There are many different methods for drying, each with their own adva ntages for particular applications; these include: Be dryers Drum drying Freeze Drying Shelf dryers Spray drying Sunlight Commercial food dehydrators Household oven DISTILLATION Distillation is a separation process, separating components in a mixture by maki ng use of the fact that some components vaporize more readily than others. When vapours are produced from a mixture, they contain the components of the original mixture, but in proportions which are determined by the relative volatilities o f these components. The vapour is richer in some components, those that are more volatile, and so a separation occurs. In fractional distillation, the vapour is condensed and then re evaporated when a further separation occurs. It is difficult and sometimes impossible to prepar e pure components in this way, but a degree of separation can easily be attained if the volatilities are reasonably different. Where great purity is required, s uccessive distillations may be used. Major uses of distillation in the food industry are for concentrating essential oils, flavours and alcoholic beverages, and in the deodorization of fats and oil s. The equilibrium relationships in distillation are governed by the relative vapou r pressures of the mixture components, that is by their volatility relative to o ne another. The equilibrium curves for two component vapour liquid mixtures can conveniently be presented in two forms, as boiling temperature/concentration cur ves, or as vapour/liquid concentration distribution curves. Both forms are relat ed as they contain the same data and the concentration distribution curves, whic h are much the same as the equilibrium curves used in extraction, can readily be obtained from the boiling temperature/concentration curves. A boiling temperature/concentration diagram is shown in Fig. 9.10. Notice that t here are two curves on the diagram, one giving the liquid concentrations and the

other the vapour concentrations. Figure 9.10 Boiling temperature/concentration diagram If a horizontal (constant temperature) line is drawn across the diagram within t he limit temperatures of the two curves, it will cut both curves. This horizonta l line corresponds to particular boiling temperature, the point at which it cuts the lower line gives the concentration of the liquid boiling at this temperatur e, the point at which it cuts the upper line gives the concentration of the vapo ur condensing at this same temperature. Thus the two points give the two concent rations which are in equilibrium. They give in fact two corresponding values on the concentration distribution curves, the point on the liquid line correspondin g to an x point (that is to the concentration in the heavier phase) and the poin t on the vapour line to a y point (concentration in the lighter phase). The diag ram shows that the y value is richer in the more volatile component of the mixtu re than x, and this is the basis for separation by distillation. It is found that some mixtures have boiling point diagrams that are a different shape from that shown in Fig. 9.10. For these mixtures, at another particular te mperature and away from the pure components at the extremes of composition, the vapour and liquid composition lines come together. This means that, at this temp erature, the liquid boils to give a vapour of the same composition as itself. Su ch mixtures constitute azeotropes and their formation limits the concentration a ttainable in a distillation column. The ethanol water mixture, which is of great importance in the alcoholic beverage industry, has a minimum boiling point azeo trope at composition 89.5 mole% (95.6% w/w) ethanol and 10.5 mole% (4.4% w/w) wa ter, which boils at 78.15C. In a distillation column, separating dilute ethyl alc ohol and water, the limit concentrations of the streams are 100% water on the on e hand in the "liquid" stream, and 95.6% ethyl alcohol, 4.4% water by weight in the "vapour" stream, however many distillation stages are used. A multi stage distillation column works by providing successive stages in which liquids boil and the vapours from the stage above condense and in which equilibr ium between the two streams, liquid and vapour, is attained. Mass balances can b e written for the whole column, and for parts of it, in the same way as with oth er contact equilibrium processes. EXAMPLE 9.13. Distillation of alcohol/water mixture In a single stage, continuous distillation column used for enriching alcohol/wat er mixtures, the feed contains 12% of alcohol, and 25% of the feed passes out wi th the top product (the "vapour" stream) from the still. Given that, at a boilin g temperature of 95.5C, 1.9 mole% of alcohol in the liquid is in equilibrium with 17 mole% of alcohol in the vapour, estimate the concentration of alcohol in the product from the still. From the equilibrium data given and since the mole fraction of alcohol is small we may assume a linear equilibrium relationship. The equilibrium curve passes th rough (0,0) and (1.9, 17) so that over this range we can say y = x(17/1.9) or x = y(1.9/17). From the operating conditions given, as the feed is equal to liquid + vapour pha ses,(L + V) we can write: F = L + V and also V = F/4 and so F = 4V and L = 3V Therefore, for the alcohol, if xf is the concentration in the feed, we can write a mass balance across the distillation column: 4Vxf =3Vx + Vy The concentration of alcohol in the feed is 12% which has to be expressed as a m ole fraction to be in the same units as the equilibrium data. The molecular weig ht of alcohol is 46 (C2H5OH), and of water 18. xf = (12/46)/(88/18 + 12/46) = 0.05 Operating equation:

4 x 0.05 = 3x + y Equilibrium condition x = (1.9/17)y, y(3 x 1.9/17) + y = 0.2 And so y = 0.15 mole% Letting the weight fraction of alcohol in the vapour stream be w we have: 0.15 = (w/46)/(w/46 + (1 w)/18) so w = 0.31 = 31% The concentration of alcohol in product from still = 31% Continuous fractional distillation columns can be analysed in rather similar way s to continuous extraction systems, They generally have a reboiler at one end of a column and a condenser at the other (head). A feed stream normally enters som ewhere away from the end points of the column and there is often provision of re flux which is a distillate return flow from the condenser section at the head of the column. Full analysis of such columns can be found in standard chemical eng ineering texts. ABSORPTION Gas absorption/desorption is a process in which a gaseous mixture is brought int o contact with a liquid and during this contact a component is transferred betwe en the gas stream and the liquid stream. The gas may be bubbled through the liqu id, or it may pass over streams of the liquid, arranged to provide a large surfa ce through which the mass transfer can occur. The liquid film in this latter cas e can flow down the sides of columns or over packing, or it can cascade from one tray to another with the liquid falling and the gas rising in the counter flow. The gas, or components of it, either dissolves in the liquid (absorption) or ext racts a volatile component from the liquid (desorption). An example of the first type is found in hydrogenation of oils, in which the hyd rogen gas is bubbled through the oil with which it reacts. Generally, there is a catalyst present also to promote the reaction. The hydrogen is absorbed into th e oil, reacting with the unsaturated bonds in the oil to harden it. Another exam ple of gas absorption is in the carbonation of beverages. Carbon dioxide under p ressure is dissolved in the liquid beverage, so that when the pressure is subseq uently released on opening the container, effervescence occurs. An example of desorption is found in the steam stripping of fats and oils in whi ch steam is brought into contact with the liquid fat or oil, and undesired compo nents of the fat or oil pass out with the steam. This is used in the deodorizing of natural oils before blending them into food products such as margarine, and in the stripping of unwanted flavours from cream before it is made into butter. The equilibrium conditions arise from the balance of concentrations of the gas o r the volatile flavour, between the gas and the liquid streams. In the gas absorption process, sufficient time must be allowed for equilibrium t o be attained so that the greatest possible transfer can occur and, also, opport unity must be provided for contacts between the streams to occur under favourabl e conditions.