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PERIODICITY OF ELEMENTS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The classification of elements enabled the chemist to understand and interpret the properties of elements have so for been discovered and they have been classified in the form of periodic table.

4.2. HISTORY DEVEPLOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The repetitions of the properties of the elements was noted a hundred years ago, long before anything was known of the internal structure of atoms and a periodic table was worked through several stages of development.

4.3. AL-RAZI
Al-Razi was the scientist who divided the elements into metals and non-metals based upon the difference in their physical and chemical properties.

4.4. DOBEREINERS TRIADS

In 1829, a German chemist, Dobereiner made use of the idea of he relationship between atomic masses and properties of elements for classification. STATEMENT If elements are arranged in the increasing order of atomic masses then atomic mass of middle element of triad is approximately the arithmetic mean of the other two elements. EXAMPLE

Chlorine Bromine Iodine Lithium Sodium Potassium

35.5 79.9 126.9 7 23 39

1. 35.5 + 126.9 = 81 2 2. 7 + 39 = 23 2

4.5. NEWLANDS LAW OF OCTAVES

INTRODUCTION In 1864, an English scientist reported his law octaves. He arranged the element in increasing order of atomic masses. He found that: STATEMENT If the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic masses, the properties are repeated after 8th element. NEWLANDS ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS H Li Be B C N O F Cl Na K Mg Ca Al Cr Si Ti P Mn S Fe

ADVANTAGE OF LAW This law provided a basis for the classification of element. This law provided a wider scope to arrange all known element into tabular form. DEFECTS OF LAW He did not include noble gasses because they were not discovered then. This law was not valid on every octaves element.

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There is no deep relationship between the elements in this arrangement. Example. Ti does not resemble C and Si. Mn does not resemble O and S.

4.6. MENDELEEVS CLASSIFICATION

INTRODUCTION Mendeleev, a Russian chemist in 1869, showed a more convenience form of periodic table called Mendeleevs periodic table. He arranged the elements in order of the increasing atomic weights. MENDELEEVS LAW STATEMENT The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic weights. His periodic table was very prcis and formed the basis of Modern Classification of elements. ADVANTAGES OF MENDELEEVS PERIODIC TABLE Mendeleevs table offered the following advantages: PREDICTION OF UNDISCOVERED ELEMENTS Mendeleev left vacant places in his periodic table and told the properties of undiscovered elements with the help of his periodic law. CORRECTION OF ATOMIC MASSES The doubtful atomic weights of certain elements were corrected. The atomic weight of Be was corrected from 13.5 to 9. STUDY OF ELEMENTS Mendeleev periodic table has helped to study the elements in a proper and simple way. E.g. the study of Sodium metal helped to predict the properties of other alkali metals. FORMATION OF GROUP Mendeleev divided elements into groups and the group number of an element indicates the highest valence state it can attain. REGULAR GRADATION IN PROPERTIES In Mendeleev periodic table, there was a regular gradation in the physical and chemical properties in a sub groups. DISCREPANCIES IN THE MANDELEEVS PERIODIC TABLE Mendeleevs periodic table has some drawbacks, which are as follows. IRREGULAR POSITION OF ELEMENTS When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic masses, potassium should precede Argon, Nickel should precede cobalt and Iodine should precede tellurium. Chemical behavior of these elements shows that the position of these elements in Mendeleevs table should be revised. STRUCTURE OF ATOM Mendeleevs periodic table base on atomic mass so it does not give any idea of the structure of atom. POSITION OF ISOTOPES Mendeleevs periodic table does not give any indication about the position of isotopes. POSITION OF ACTINIDE AND LANTHANIDE Lanthanide and actinides have been assigned place (Group III) in the periodic table which goes against the periodic Law. WRONG PLACEMENT OF METALS Alkali metals (Na, K) and coinage metals (Cu, Ag) differ in properties butt were placed in the same group. later on this discrepancy has been removed by placing them two sub Groups A and B. CONCLUSION In the light of above fact it was concluded that atomic mass is not fundamental property of an element.

4.7. MODERN PERODIC LAW & PERIODIC TABLE

In order to arrange elements in a periodic table, it was very necessary to provide every element a number, which could justify its position.

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MOSLEYS CONTRIBUTION INTRODUCTION IN 1913 Mosley, a British physicist introduces a fundamental number called atomic number and stated his law as. STATEMENT The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic number and the properties of elements depend upon their electronic configuration. The arrangements of elements in ascending order of their atomic number showed similar properties were repeated in a regular manner.

4.8. MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

After Moseleys contribution (1913), modern periodic table was recommended by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (I.U.P.A.C) in 1957, the elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers. This arrangement of elements removed the discrepancies in Mendeleevs periodic table. PERIODICITY OF PROPERTIES Both physical and chemical properties of elements are repeated after regular interval. The periodicity of physical properties can be observed by comparing atomic volumes of various elements. Atomic volume is the volume occupied by one gram of an element in solid or liquid state. The curve in figure illustrates the regular and periodic variations of atomic volumes with atomic number. Periodicity of properties also shown by densities, melting and boiling points and other physical properties of elements.

4.9. PERIODS
The horizontal rows in periodic table are called Periods. There are seven periods in a periodic table. Period 1 is the only period which does not start with alkali metals and period 7 is the only incomplete period. 1ST PERIOD (SHORTEST PERIOD) It contains two elements. The names of the elements are Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He). This period signifies the completion of K-shell or first orbit. 2ND PERIOD (FIRST SHORT PERIOD) It contains eight elements. It starts with Lithium (Li) and ends with Neon (Ne). This period signifies the filling up of L-shell. 3RD PERIOD (SECOND SHORT PERIOD) It also contains eight elements. It starts with Sodium (Na) and ends at Argon (Ar). This period signifies the filling up of M-shell. 4TH PERIOD (FIRST LONG PERIOD) It contains eighteen elements. It starts with Potassium (K) and ends at Krypton (Kr). This period signifies the filling of N-shell. 5TH PERIOD (SECOND LONG PERIOD) It contains eighteen elements. It starts with Rubidium (Rb) and ends at Xenon (Xe). This period signifies the filling of O-shell. 6TH PERIOD (LONGEST PERIOD)

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It contains thirty two elements. It starts with Cesium (Cs) and ends at Radon (Rn). Besides, fourteen elements called Lanthanides are placed at the bottom of the periodic table. This period signifies the filling of P-shell.

7TH PERIOD (INCOMPLETE PERIOD)

It contains also contains thirty two elements. This period is incomplete as to date about 109 elements have been discovered. It starts with Francium (Fr) and until continued to Ununoctium (Uuo).

4.10. GROUPS
The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups. Elements having same outer configuration show similar properties and are placed in one group. There are eight groups in the periodic table. Which are further divided into two sub-groups. Sub-Group A (Normal elements) Sub-Group B (Transition elements) GROUP IA (THE ALKALI METALS) Some properties of group I are as, This group contains Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr. They are monovalent. They have one electron in their outer most shell. These light metals are chemically reactive and electropositive. They form Ionic compounds. GROUP IIA (THE ALKALINE EATH METALS) Some characteristics of group II are as, This group contains Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra. They have one pair of electron in their outermost shell. They form ionic compounds. These are harder less volatile than alkali metals. Their oxides and hydroxides are basic and found as Silicates, hence are named alkaline earth metals. GROUP IIIA (THE BORON FAMILY) Some characteristics of Boron family is given below. It contains B, Al, Ga, In and Ti. Boron is metalloid. Aluminum, Gallium, Indium and thallium are metals. They have three electrons in there outermost shell. They form tendency to form covalent compound. Their valency is + 3. GROUP IVA (CARBON & SILICON FAMILY) Some properties of group IV are as under, It contains Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin and Lead. They have four electrons in valence shell. Carbon and Silicon are more electronegative and form covalent bond. Tin and Lead are metals and form ionic bond. They show the intermediate characteristics of metals and non-metals.

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GROUP VA (THE NITROGEN FAMILY) Some properties of group V elements are listed below. In this group Nitrogen and Phosphorus are non-metals. Arsenic and Antimony are metalloid and bismuth is weakly metallic. They have five electrons in their valence shell. The group displays a remarkable number of allotropes. Electronegativity decreases down the group. GROUP VIA (THE OXYGEN FAMILY) Some characteristics of group VI are given below, This group consists of O, S, Te, Se and polonium. All these have six electrons in their valence shell. Oxygen is gas while other elements are solids. All elements of this group show allotropy. Electronegativity values decreases down the group. GROUP VIIA (THE HALOGEN FAMILY) Some characteristics of halogen family are as, They are very active non-metals. They have seven electrons in their valence shell. They are highly electronegative elements. Fluorine is the most electronegative element. Fluorine and Chlorine are gasses, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid. They exist as diatomic molecules. GROUP VIIIA (THE INERT OR NOBLE GASSES) OR (ZERO GROUP) The elements of group VIII are called Noble Gasses or (Inert Gasses) or (Zero Group) elements. Some characteristics of group O are as follows. They are mono atomic and low boiling gasses. Their outer most shell is completely filled by electrons. They are chemically un-reactive. All the noble gasses except radon are present in atmosphere. They are mostly obtained from air by liquefaction.

4.11. TRANSITION ELEMENTS

Elements occur in groups IB, IIB, through VIIIB are known as transition elements. They include the elements Scandium, Yttrium, Lanthanum and Actinium and the two rare-earth Series of elements. The lanthanide and Actinide Series.

PROPERTIES
Some characteristics of transition elements are as, These elements have incomplete inner electron shell. They show variable valencies. They are all metals. They have ability to form complex ions by coordination. They have high melting point because of strong bonds between the atoms.

4.12. POSITION OF METALS IN PERIODIC TABLE

The position of metals in periodic table include group IA (except hydrogen), IIA, IB, IIB the transition elements, including the Lanthanides and actinides. Metallic properties are pronounced in the lower left hand corner of periodic table.

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Elements in Group VIA and VIIA are the most active non-metals. Some of the elements in Group IVA and VA are non-metals e.g. C, N, P.

4.14. POSITION OF METALLOIDS IN PERIODIC TABLE

Metalloids are found at the top of the group IIIA and bottom of groups VIA and VIIA. E.g. Be, Te, At. VARIOUS TRENDS IN A GROUP OF ELEMENT The various trends in a group of elements are: Due to similar electronic configuration the elements show similar properties. Due to abnormal high electronegativity and small atomic sizes, the first number of each group shows slightly different behavior from other number of that group. A regular Gradation in physical and chemical properties in a group is observed due to change in their size and electronegativity. The metallic character or electro positivity of metals in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd group increases with increasing atomic number down the group. The electronegativity of elements decrease with increase atomic number. Fluorine is the most electronegative element in halogen while Iodine is the least.

4.15. IONIZATION ENERGY (I.E)

The amount of energy required to eject an electron from its outermost shell is called as ionization energy or ionization potential. FACTORS AFFECTING IONIZATION ENERGY The ionization energy of an element is mainly depend upon. The nuclear charge. The size of the atom. UNIT It is expressed in electron volts or Kilo-joules per mole. EXAMPLE Na (g) Na (g) + e = H = +495 KJ/moleTREND IN A PERIOD Ionization energy increases from left to right in a periodic table due to increases in nuclear charge and decrease in atomic size. Element Na Mg Si P S Cl Ar Ionization energy (e.v) 5.14 7.65 8.15 10.49 10.36 12.97 15.76 TREND IN GROUP Ionization energy decreases from top to bottom in a group due to increase in atomic size. Element Li Na K Rb Cs Ionization energy (e.v) 5.39 5.14 4.34 4.18 3.89

4.16. ELECTRONEGATIVITY (E.N)

The tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of electron towards itself is termed as Electronegativity. EXAMPLE The electronegativity of hydrogen is 2.20 Fluorine is the most electronegative element having electronegativity 4.0 Cesium is the least electronegative element having electronegativity 0.7 (Generally smaller atoms and those with nearly filled electronic shell have high electronegativity) FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRONEGATIVITY Electronegativity depends upon the following factors. Atomic Size Atomic Number

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Electron Affinity Ionization Energy TREND IN PERIOD E.N increases from left to right with a period due to increase in nuclear charge and decrease in size. Element B C N O F Electronegativity value (e.v) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 2.5 TREND IN GROUP E.N values decrease from top to bottom in a group due to increase in atomic size. Element F Cl Br I Electronegativity value (e.v) 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5

4.17. FUNDRMENTAL PARTICALES OF ATOM

Atom is composed of numerous sub atomic particles but only fundamental particles take part in chemical reaction, these fundamental particles are as under. Electron Proton Neutron PROPERTIES OF PARTICALES The characteristics of these particles are described below. ELECTRON It is a negatively charged particle. It has charge equal to 1.6022x10-19. It has a mass equal to 9.11x10-31Kg. It is present around the nucleus. PROTON It a positively charged particle. It has charged equal to 1.6022x10-19. They are present in the nucleus. It has a mass equal to 1.67x10-27Kg. It is 1837 times heavier than electron NEUTRON It has no charge. It is 1842 times heavier than an electron. It has a mass equal to 1.67x10-27Kg. Neutron are present in a nucleus

4.

18. ATOMIC RADIUS

Half of the distance between the nuclei of two similar adjacent atom is called Atomic radius. DIGRAMATICALLY

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UNIT Atomic radii are generally expressed in Angstrom unit, (Ao or A.U) 1Ao = 10x10-8cm. EXAMPLE The distance between C C in diamond is 1.54 A. hence the radius is 1.54/2=0.77A TREND IN PERIOD The atomic radii are decrease from left to right in a period periodic table and this is because of increase in nuclear charge Elements Na Mg Al P Cl Ar Atomic radius 1.57 1.36 1.25 1.10 0.99 0.91 TREND IN GROUP Atomic radius increase from top to bottom and this is because of increase in atomic size. Elements Li Na K Rb Cs Atomic radius 1.23 1.57 2.03 2.16 2.35

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