DC MACHINES INTRODUCTION: A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by using the principle of magnetic

induction. Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the conductor. The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on (1) the strength of the magnetic field, (2) the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field, (3) the speed at which the conductor is moved, and (4) the length of the conductor within the magnetic field. The POLARITY of the voltage depends on the direction of the magnetic lines of flux and the direction of movement of the conductor. To determine the direction of current in a give situation, the LEFT-HAND RULE FOR GENERATORS is used.

FLEMINGS LEFT-HAND RULE Point your thumb in the direction the conductor is being moved. Point your forefinger in the direction of magnetic flux (from north to south). Your middle finger will then point in the direction of current flow in an external circuit to which the voltage is applied. THE GENERATOR: The simplest generator that can be built is an ac generator. Basic generating principles are most easily explained through the use of the ac generator. An generator consists of a wire loop placed so that it can be rotated in a stationary magnetic field. This will produce an induced emf in the loop. Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an external circuit load in order to pick up or use the induced emf. The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field. The pole pieces are shaped and positioned as shown to concentrate the magnetic field as close as possible to the wire loop. The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the ARMATURE. The ends of the armature

loop are connected to rings called SLIP RINGS. They rotate with the armature. The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them, ride against the rings. The generated voltage appears across these brushes.

The d.c. generator produces a voltage in the following manner

CONSTRUCTION OF A DC MACHINE Whether a machine is d.c. generator or a d.c. motor The construction basically remains the same. It consists of the following parts: YOKE: The Yoke of a d.c. machine is made up of magnetic materials like cast iron. For large machines rolled steel, silicon steel or cast steel is used which provides low reluctance (i.e., High permeability) and good mechanical strength. It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the d.c. machine, so that the insulating materials get protected from moisture, dust, acidic fumes etc. It provides mechanical support to the poles and forms a part of the magnetic circuit.

POLES: The pole is divided into two parts namely, 1) Pole core and 2) Pole shoe

Pole core: The pole core is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel laminations, which are riveted together and bolted to the yoke. It is circular or rectangular in shape. It carries field winding, which is necessary to produce the flux.

Pole shoe: The pole shoes are at the end of the poles and they spread out the flux in the air gap. They are of large cross section, due to which the reluctance of the path is reduced.

Field windings: The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction. Due to the current flowing in these windings, The pole core (on which these windings are wound) behaves as an electro magnet, producing necessary flux. It has to carry current, hence made up of some conducting material. Aluminium or copper is the best choice. The field coils are required to take any type of shape and bend about pole core. The field winding is divided into various coils called field coils. These are connected in series with each other and wound in such a direction around the pole cores, such that alternate N and S poles are formed.

ARMATURE: The armature is further divided into two parts namely, 1) Armature core and 2) Armature winding. Armature core: Armature core is cylindrical in shape and mounted on a shaft as shown in figure. It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. The armature windings are placed in slots cut in a drum shaped iron core. Each winding completely surrounds the core so that the entire length of the conductor cuts the main magnetic field. Therefore, the total voltage induced in the armature is greater than that of ring type armature.

ARMATURE WINDINGS: Armature winding is nothing but the interconnection of the armature conductors, placed in the slots provided in the armature core periphery. When the armature is rotated, in case of generator, magnetic flux gets cut by armature conductors and an e.m.f. gets induced in them. The generation of e.m.f. takes place in generators and it carries the current supplied in case of d.c motor. Usually it is also made up of copper. COMMUTATOR: We know that, basically the e.m.f. induced in the armature conductors is alternating. The component used to convert this alternating voltage into unidirectional d.c. voltage is called commutator. It also facilitates the collection of current from the armature conductors. As it collects current.

BRUSHES: Brushes are made up of soft metal like carbon. They are solid rectangular pieces. They are stationery and resting on the commutator. The brushes collect current from commutator and make it available to the external circuit.

E.M.F EQUATION OF D.C GENERATOR: Let, P= No. of poles of the generator. = Flux produced by each pole, in Wb. N= Speed of the armature. In r.p.m. Z= Total no. of armature conductors A= No. of parallel paths in which the Z No. of conductors are divided. A=P For lap winding, A=2 for wave winding. When the armature is rotated in the magnetic field, an e.m.f. is induced in the conductor according to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.

The average value of e.m.f. induced in each armature conductor is, e =Rate of change of Flux = In one revolution, conductor will cut total flux produced by all the poles, i.e. P

As mentioned above, there are several conductors joined in series in each parallel path. Voltage remains same across all the parallel paths. Hence Z/A number of conductors are always in series

TYPES OF GENERATORS: Depending on the type of field excitation, D.C generators are classified into two types. They are 1). Separately excited generators. 2). Self excited generators

Self excited generators are again classified as, a). Shunt field generator. B). Series field generator. And c). Compound field generator

a). Shunt field generator.

B). Series field generator

c). Compound field generator.

TYPES OF MOTORS: Depending on the type of field excitation, D.C motors are classified into two types. They are 1). Separately excited motors. 2). Self excited motors

Separately excited motors

Self excited motors

Self excited motors are again classified as, a). Shunt field motors. B). Series field motors. And c). Compound field motors.

a). Shunt field motor.

B). Series field motor.

c). Compound field motor.

D.C Shunt motor. Let, V = Applied voltage, Eb = Back e.m.f. Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature resistance, Voltage V has to, 1). Overcome the back e.m.f Eb and 2). Supply the armature ohmic drop Ia Ra. Therefore the voltage equation of a motor is --------------------------- (1).

Multiplying the above equation by Ia, we get,

D.C Shunt motor.

Characteristics of D.C Motor: Characteristics of motor means the relationship between its speed, armature current and Torque. 1). Torque and armature current (i.e. Ta / Ia) characteristics (Also called electrical characteristics) 2). Speed and Armature current (i.e., N / Ia) characteristics. 3). Speed and torque (i.e., N / Ta ) characteristics. Characteristics of D.C series motor: In a series wound motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature. In series motors same current flows through both the field winding and the armature. If the mechanical load on the motor increases, the armature current also increases. Therefore the flux in the series motor increases with the increase in armature current and vice-versa.

In series motor as the field winding also carry armature current, but, a fa I till the point of magnetic saturation i.e. point A on the graph.After saturation flux is practically independent of armature current Hence, a a T a I i.e. from point A to B on the graph. The shaft torque Tsh is less than the armature torque, because of stray losses.