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PROJECT REPORT ON AERODYNAMIC OF ROCKET

HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED,


LUCKNOW.

REPORT SUBMITTED BY: - PRATIK


B.Tech (3rd year) Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering And Technology , Gurukula Kangri University , Haridwar(U.K.)

CONTENTS
BSTRACT CKNOWLEDGEMENT AL OVERVIEW HAL LUCKNOW PRODUCTS OF HAL LUCKNOW CUSTOMERS OF HAL LUCKNOW

INTRODUCTION TO ROCKET AERODYNAMICS AERODYNAMICS FORCES FACTORS THAT EFFECT AERODYNAMICS DENSITY EFFECT ON AERODYNAMICS VELOCITY EFFECT ON AERODYNAMICS DYNAMICS PRESSURE SHAPE EFFECT ON DRAG SIZE EFFECT ON DRAG AERA FORMULA DRAG EQUATION LIFT EQUATION CONCLUSION

ABSTRACT

Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air, particularly when it interacts with a solid object. Aerodynamics is a subfield of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics. A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle which obtains thrust from a rocket engine. In all rockets, the exhaust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction. Rocket engines push rockets forwards simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With deep sense of gratitude and respect, I am very much thankful to Mr. R.K. TYAGI, CHAIRMAN, HAL and Mr. S.P. SINGH, SENIOR MANAGER, TRAINING DEPARTMENT, HAL, LUCKNOW for giving me the opportunity to do my project in this prestigious institute. I also extend my regards to ALL THE FACULTY MEMEBERS OF HAL, LUCKNOW whose constant encouragement, valuable contribution, boundless enthusiasm, whole hearted support and timely guidance which led me to complete this project with zeal. I want to express my sincere thanks to all other teaching and nonteaching staff of HAL, LUCKNOW for their help and co-operation.

I also want to express my sincere thanks to DR. R.D. KAUSHIK, DEAN, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, GURUKULA KANGRI UNIVERSITY, HARIDWAR AND MR. SANJEEV KUMAR LAMBA, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGG. , FET, GKV, HARIDWAR for giving me opportunity to join the summer training at HAL, LUCKNOW.

HAL OVERVIEW
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) came into existence on 1st October 1964. The Company was formed by the merger of Hindustan Aircraft Limited with Aeronautics India Limited and Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur. The Company traces its roots to the pioneering efforts of an industrialist with extraordinary vision, the late Seth Walchand Hirachand, who set up Hindustan Aircraft Limited at Bangalore in association with the erstwhile princely State of Mysore in December 1940. The Government of India became a shareholder in March 1941 and took over the Management in 1942. Today, HAL has 19 Production Units and 10 Research & Design Centres in 8 locations in India. The Company has an impressive product track record - 15 types of Aircraft/Helicopters manufactured with in-house R & D and 14 types produced under license. HAL has manufactured over 3658 Aircraft/Helicopters, 4178 Engines, Upgraded 272 Aircraft and overhauled over 9643 Aircraft and 29775 Engines. HAL has been successful in numerous R & D programs developed for both Defence and Civil Aviation sectors. HAL has made substantial progress in its current projects :

Advanced Light Helicopter Weapon System Integration (ALH-WSI) Tejas - Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Intermediate Jet Trainer (IJT) Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) Various military and civil upgrades.

Dhruv was delivered to the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force and the Coast Guard in March 2002, in the very first year of its production, a unique achievement.

HAL has played a significant role for India's space programs by participating in the manufacture of structures for Satellite Launch Vehicles like

PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) GSLV (Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) IRS (Indian Remote Satellite) INSAT (Indian National Satellite)

Apart from these, other major diversification projects are manufacture & overhaul of Industrial Marine Gas Turbine and manufacture of Composites. HAL has formed the following Joint Ventures (JVs) :

BAeHAL Software Limited Indo-Russian Aviation Limited (IRAL) Snecma-HAL Aerospace Pvt Ltd SAMTEL-HAL Display System Limited HALBIT Avionics Pvt Ltd HAL-Edgewood Technologies Pvt Ltd INFOTECH-HAL Ltd TATA-HAL Technologies Ltd HATSOFF Helicopter Training Pvt Ltd International Aerospace Manufacturing Pvt Ltd Multi Role Transport Aircraft Ltd

Several Co-production and Joint Ventures with international participation are under consideration.

HAL's supplies / services are mainly to Indian Defence Services, Coast Guard and Border Security Force. Transport Aircraft and Helicopters have also been supplied to Airlines as well as State Governments of India. The Company has also achieved a foothold in export in more than 30 countries, having demonstrated its quality and price competitiveness. HAL was conferred NAVRATNA status by the Government of India on 22nd June 2007. The Company scaled new heights in the Financial Year 2010-11 with Turnover of Rs.13, 116 Crores and PBT of Rs 2,841 Crores. HAL has won several International & National Awards for achievements in R&D, Technology, Managerial Performance, Exports, Energy Conservation, Quality and fulfillment of Social Responsibilities.

HAL LUCKNOW
Accessories Division of HAL was established in 1970 with the primary objective of

manufacturing systems and accessories for various aircraft and engines and attain self sufficiency in this area. Its facilities are spread over 116,000 sqm of built area set in sylvan surroundings. At present it is turning out over 1300 different types of accessories. The Division started with manufacturing various Systems and Accessories viz, Hydraulics, Engine Fuel System, Air-conditioning and Pressurization, Flight Control, Wheel and Brake, Gyro & Barometric Instruments, Electrical and Power Generation & Control System, Undercarriages, Oxygen System and Electronic System all under one roof to meet the requirements of the aircraft, helicopters and engines being produced by HAL like MiG series of aircrafts, Dornier, Jaguar, Advanced Light Helicopters(ALH), PTA, Cheetal & Su-30 and repair / Overhaul of Avro, AN-32, HPT-32, Mirage-2000 & Sea-Harrier aircrafts, Cheetah and Chetak helicopters. The Division undertakes manufacturing and serviceing of accessories under Transfer of Technology (ToT) from more than 40 licensor from different countries. In addition, a lot of emphasis has been given on developing indigenous capability for Design and Development of various systems and accessories. This capability has culminated in indigenous design and development of over 350 types of accessories for the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) (Air force and Navy version), Advanced Light Helicopter (all versions i.e. Army, Air force, Navy & Civil), SARAS and IJT (Intermediate Jet Trainer). The Division has also developed and has made successful strides into the area of Microprocessor based control systems for the LCA Engine as well as other systems.

The Division has been in the forefront of accessories development and supply not only to Indian Force but to Army, Navy, Coast Guard and various Defence Laboratories as well as for Space applications. The Division is networked with all sister Divisions and R& D Centers by LAN/WAN. Lean

manufacturing and ERP have been implemented to create an efficient manufacturing system. The Division today has a prime name in the Aviation market and various international companies are interested to join hands with it for future projects. The Division has also made steady progress in the area of Export.

PRODUCTS OF HAL LUCKNOW


Products in Current Manufacturing Range :

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM AND POWER CONTROL Hydraulic Pumps, Accumulators, Actuators, Electro-selectors, Bootstrap Reservoirs and various types of valves

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEM Cold Air Unit, Water Extractors, Non Return Valves and Venturies

ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM Fuel after Burner regulator and distributor, Main Fuel Distributor, Regulator and After Burner Pump, Plunger Pumps, Fuel Metering Device

INSTRUMENTS Electrical Indicators, Fuel quantity and flow metering instruments, Flight instruments, Sensors and Switches

ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM AC/DC Generator, Control and Protection Units, AC and DC Master Box, Inverters, Transformer Rectifier Unit, Actuators

UNDERCARRIAGE, WHEELS AND BRAKES Main and Nose Undercarriage, Main and Nose Wheel, Brake System LRUs

TEST RIGS Dedicated Test Rigs, custom-built Fuel/Hydraulic Test Rigs and Electrical Test Rigs

Export Products :

Supply of New along with Repair and Overhaul of Rotables and Spares of aircraft accessories of MiG series, Jaguar International, Light Combat Aircraft (LCA), Su-30 MKI, Mirage-2000, Sea Harrier, Dornier DO-228, Avro HS-748 (Specific Version), Cheetah (Lama) / Chetak (Alouette III), MI - 17, Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH) Helicopters to Royal Air Force Oman, Air Mauritius, Israel Aircraft Industries, ELTA Israel, Hamilton Susstrand U.S.A., Govt of Namibia, Aerostar Romania, Ecuadorian Air Force etc.

CUSTOMERS OF HAL LUCKNOW


Indian Air Force / Army / Navy / Coast Guard Defence R&D Laboratories / Department of Space State Govt. Civil Aviation / Ordnance Factories / Corporate Sectors Flying Academics & Educational Institutions Airlines / Air Taxi / Air Cargo Defence Forces of countries from South East Asia, Middle East and Africa Collaborators / Licensors

Aerodynamic forces are generated and act on a rocket as it flies through the air. Forces are vector quantities having both a magnitude and a direction. The magnitude of the aerodynamic forces depends on the shape, size and velocity of the rocket and some properties of the air through which it flies. By convention, the single aerodynamic force is broken into two components: the drag force which is opposed to the direction of motion, and the lift force which acts perpendicular to the direction of motion. The lift and drag act through the centre of pressure which is the average location of the aerodynamic forces on an object. Aerodynamic forces are mechanical forces. They are generated by the interaction and contact of a solid body with a fluid, a liquid or a gas. Aerodynamic forces are not generated by a force field, in the sense of the gravitational field, or an electromagnetic field. For lift and drag to be generated, the rocket must be in contact with the air. So outside the atmosphere there is no lift and no drag. Aerodynamic forces are generated by the difference in velocity between the rocket and the air. There must be motion between the rocket and the air. If there is no relative motion, there is no lift and no drag. Aerodynamic forces are more important for a model rocket than for a full scale rocket because the entire flight part of the model rocket takes place in the atmosphere. A full scale rocket climbs above the atmosphere very quickly.

Aerodynamic forces are used differently on a rocket than on an airplane. On an airplane, lift is used to overcome the weight of the aircraft, but on a rocket, thrust is used in opposition to weight. Because the centre of pressure is not normally located at the centre of gravity of the rocket, aerodynamic forces can cause the rocket to rotate in flight. The lift of a rocket is a side force used to stabilize and control the direction of flight. While most aircraft have a high lift to drag ratio, the drag of a rocket is usually much greater than the lift. We can think of drag as aerodynamic friction, and one of the sources of drag is the skin friction between the molecules of the air and the solid surface of the moving rocket. Because the skin friction is an interaction between a solid and a gas, the magnitude of the skin friction depends on properties of both solid and gas. For the solid, a smooth, waxed surface produces less skin friction than a roughened surface. For the gas, the magnitude depends on the viscosity of the air and the relative magnitude of the viscous forces to the motion of the flow, expressed as the Reynolds number. Along the surface, a boundary layer of low energy flow is generated and the magnitude of the skin friction depends on the state of this flow. We can also think of drag as aerodynamic resistance to the motion of the object through the fluid. This source of drag depends on the shape of the rocket and is called form drag. As air flows around a body, the local velocity and pressure are changed. Since pressure is a measure of the momentum of the gas molecules and a change in momentum produces a force, a varying pressure distribution will produce a force on the body. We can determine the magnitude of the force by integrating or adding up the local pressure times the surface area around the entire body. The base area of a model rocket produces form drag. Lift occurs when a flow of gas is turned by a solid object. The flow is turned in one direction, and the lift is generated in the opposite direction, according to Newton's third law of action and reaction. For a model rocket, the nose cone, body tube, and fins can turn the flow and become a source of lift if the rocket is inclined to the flight direction.

When two solid objects interact in a mechanical process, forces are transmitted, or applied, at the point of contact. But when a solid object interacts with a fluid, things are more difficult to describe because the fluid can change its shape. For a solid body immersed in a fluid, the "point of contact" is every point on the surface of the body. The fluid can flow around the body and maintain physical contact at all points. The transmission, or application, of mechanical forces between a solid body and a fluid occurs at every point on the surface of the body. And the transmission occurs through the fluid pressure. Variation in Pressure The magnitude of the force acting over a small section of an object immersed in a fluid equals the pressure p times the area A of the section. A quick units check shows that: P * A = (force/area) * area = force As discussed on the fluid pressure slide, pressure is a scalar quantity related to the momentum of the molecules of a fluid. Since a force is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction, we must determine the direction of the force. Pressure acts perpendicular (or normal) to the solid surface of an object. So the direction of the force on the small section of the object is along the normal to the surface. We denote this direction by the letter n.

The normal direction changes from the front of the rocket to the rear and from the top to the bottom. To obtain the net mechanical force over the entire solid object, we must sum the contributions from all the small sections. Mathematically, the summation is indicated by the Greek letter sigma ( ) the net aerodynamic force F is equal to the sum of the product of the pressure p times the area A in the normal direction. F= p*A*n

In the limit of infinitely small sections, this gives the integral of the pressure times the area around the closed surface. Using the symbol S dA for integration, we have: F = S (p * n) dA Where the integral is taken all around the body. On the figure, that is why the integral sign has a circle through it. If the pressure on a closed surface is a constant, there is no net force produced because the summation of the directions of the normal adds up to zero. For every small section there is another small section whose normal points in exactly the opposite direction. F = S (p * n) dA = p * S n dA = 0 For a fluid in motion, the velocity has different values at different locations around the body. The local pressure is related to the local velocity, so the pressure also varies around the closed surface and a net force is produced. Summing the pressure perpendicular to the surface times the area around the body produces a net force. F = S (p * n) dA Definitions of Lift and Drag Since the fluid is in motion, we can define a flow direction along the motion. The component of the net force perpendicular (or normal) to the flow direction is called the lift; the component of the net force along the flow direction is called the drag.These are definitions. In reality, there is a single, net, integrated force caused by the pressure variations along a body. This aerodynamic force acts through the average location of the pressure variation which is called the center of pressure. Velocity Distribution For an ideal fluid with no boundary layers, the surface of an object is a streamline. If the velocity is low, and no energy is added to the flow, we can use Bernoulli's equation along a streamline to determine the pressure distribution for a known velocity distribution. If boundary layers are present, things are a little more confusing, since the external flow responds to the edge of the boundary layer and the pressure on the surface is imposed from the edge of the boundary layer. If the boundary layer separates from the surface, it gets even more confusing. How do we determine the velocity distribution around a body? To correctly determine the velocity distribution, we have to solve equations expressing a conservation of mass, momentum, and energy for the fluid passing the object. In some cases, we can solve simplified versions of the equations to determine the velocity.

For coasting rockets, this is particularly difficult because the flow normally separates at the nozzle end of the rocket.

CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFIED THAT PRATIK S/O Mr. RAM SWAROOP PURSUING B.TECH IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (2009-2013) FROM GURUKULA KANGRI UNIVERSITY,

HARIDWAR, U.K. HAS SUMMITED THE PROJECT REPORT ON AERODYNAMICS OF ROCKET AT HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED (HAL), LUCKNOW.

DATE: PLACE: (S.P. SINGH) SENIOR MANAGER, TRAINING DEPARTMENT, HAL , LUCKNOW

When a solid body is moved through a fluid (gas or liquid), the fluid resists the motion. The object is subjected to an aerodynamic force in a direction opposed to the motion which we call drag. There are many factors that affect aerodynamic forces. We can group these factors into (a) those associated with the object, (b) those associated with the motion of the object through the air, and (c) those associated with the air itself The Object Geometry has a large effect on the aerodynamic forces generated by an object. Lift and drag depend linearly on the size of the object moving through the air. The cross-sectional shape of an object determines the form drag created by the pressure variation around the object. If we think of drag as aerodynamic friction, the amount of drag depends on the surface roughness of the object; a smooth, waxed surface produces less drag than a roughened surface. This effect is called skin friction and is usually included in the measured drag coefficient of the object. Motion of the Air Lift and drag are associated with the movement of the rocket through the air, so lift and drag depend on the velocity of the air. Lift and drag actually vary with the square of the relative velocity between the object and the air. The inclination of the object to the flow also affects the amount of lift and drag generated by a given shaped object. If the object moves through the air at

speeds near the speed of sound, shock waves are formed on the object which create an additional drag component called wave drag. The motion of the object through the air also causes boundary layers to form on the object. A boundary layer is a region of very low speed flow near the surface which contributes to the skin friction. Properties of the Air Lift and drag depend directly on the mass of the flow going past the rocket. The drag also depends in a complex way on two other properties of the air: its viscosity and its compressibility. These factors affect the wave drag and skin frictions which are described above. We can gather all of this information on the factors that affect lift and drag into two mathematical equations called the Lift Equation and the Drag Equation. With these equations we can predict how much aerodynamic force is generated by a given body moving at a given speed through a given fluid.

Aerodynamic forces are generated whenever an object moves through a liquid or gas. From Newton's second law of motion, the aerodynamic forces on the body are directly related to the change in momentum of the fluid with time. The fluid momentum is equal to the mass times the velocity of the fluid. Since the fluid is moving, defining the mass gets a little tricky. If the mass of fluid were brought to a halt, it would occupy some volume in space; and we could define its density to be the mass divided by the volume. With a little math we can show that the aerodynamic forces are directly proportional to the density of the fluid that flows by the rocket. Beginning with Newton's second law: F = d (m * V) / dt where F is the force, m is the mass, t is time, and V is the velocity. If we integrate this equation, we obtain: F = constant * V * m / t Since the fluid is moving, we must determine the mass in terms of the mass flow rate. The mass flow rate is the amount of mass passing a given point during some time interval and its units are

mass/time. We can relate the mass flow rate to the density mathematically. The mass flow rate m dot is equal to the density r times the velocity times the area A through which the mass passes. M dot = m / t = r * V * A With knowledge of the mass flow rate, we can express the aerodynamic force as equal to the mass flow rate times the velocity. F = constant * V * r * V * A A quick units check: mass * length / time^2 = constant * length/time * mass/length^3 * length/time * length^2 mass * length / time^2 = mass * length/time^2 Combining the velocity dependence and absorbing the area into the constant, we find: F = constant * r * V^2 The aerodynamic force equals a constant times the density times the velocity squared. The dynamics pressure of a moving flow is equal to one half of the density times the velocity squared. Therefore, the aerodynamic force is directly proportional to the dynamic pressure q of the flow. F = constant * q where the value of this constant is different than the previous constant. During the launch of the Space Shuttle you may hear the commentator call out, "Max-Q on the vehicle." This indicates the area of maximum aerodynamic forces on the spacecraft. Lift and drag depend linearly on the density of the fluid. Halving the density halves the lift, halving the density halves the drag. The fluid density depends on the type of fluid and the depth of the fluid. In the atmosphere, air density decreases as altitude increases. The relation between altitude and density is a fairly complex exponential that has been determined by measurements in the atmosphere.

Aerodynamic forces are generated whenever an object moves through a liquid or gas. From Newton's second law of motion, the aerodynamic forces on the body are directly related to the change in momentum of the fluid with time. The fluid momentum is equal to the mass times the velocity of the fluid. Since the fluid is moving, defining the mass gets a little tricky. If the mass of fluid were brought to a halt, it would occupy some volume in space; and we could define its density to be the mass divided by the volume. With a little math we can show that the aerodynamic forces are directly proportional to the density of the fluid that flows by the rocket. As a result of this derivation, we also find that lift and drag depend on the square of the velocity. Here is the derivation, beginning with Newton's second law: F = d (m * V) / dt where F is the force, m is the mass, t is time, and V is the velocity. If we integrate this equation, we obtain: F = constant * V * m / t Since the fluid is moving, we must determine the mass in terms of the mass flow rate. The mass flow rate is the amount of mass passing a given point during some time interval and its units are mass/time. We can relate the mass flow rate to the density mathematically. The mass flow rate mdot is equal to the density r times the velocity times the area A through which the mass passes.

mdot = m / t = r * V * A With knowledge of the mass flow rate, we can express the aerodynamic force as equal to the mass flow rate times the velocity. F = constant * V * r * V * A A quick units check: mass * length / time^2 = constant * length/time * mass/length^3 * length/time * length^2 mass * length / time^2 = mass * length/time^2 Combining the velocity dependence and absorbing the area into the constant, we find: F = constant * r * V^2 The aerodynamic force equals a constant times the density times the velocity squared. The dynamic pressure of a moving flow is equal to one half of the density times the velocity squared.Therefore, the aerodynamic force is directly proportional to the dynamic pressure of the flow. The velocity used in the lift and drag equations is the relative velocity between an object and the flow. Since the aerodynamic force depends on the square of the velocity, doubling the velocity will quadruple the lift and drag.

An important property of any gas is its pressure. Because understanding what pressure is and how it works is so fundamental to the understanding of rocketry, we are including several slides on pressure in the Beginner's Guide. There are two ways to look at pressure: (1) the small scale action of individual air molecules or (2) the large scale action of a large number of molecules. On the the small scale, from the kinetic theory of gases, a gas is composed of a large number of molecules that are very small relative to the distance between molecules. The molecules of a gas are in constant, random motion and frequently collide with each other and with the walls of any container. During collisions with the walls, there is a change in velocity and therefore a change in momentum of the molecules. The change in momentum produces a force on the walls which is related to the gas pressure. The pressure of a gas is a measure of the average linear momentum of the moving molecules of a gas. On the large scale, the pressure of a gas is a state variable, like the temperature and the density. The change in pressure during any process is governed by the laws of thermodynamics. Although pressure itself is a scalar quantity, we can define a pressure force to be equal to the pressure (force/area) times the surface area in a direction perpendicular to the surface. If a gas is static and not flowing, the measured pressure is the same in all directions. But if the gas is moving, the measured pressure depends on the direction of motion. This leads to the definition of the dynamic pressure. To understand dynamic pressure, we begin with a one dimensional version of the conservation of linear momentum for a fluid. r * u * du/dx = - dp/dx

where r is the density of the gas, p is the pressure, x is the direction of the flow, and u is the velocity in the x direction. Performing a little algebra: dp/dx + r * u * du/dx = 0 For a constant density (incompressible flow) we can take the "r * u" term inside the differential: dp/dx + d(.5 * r * u^2)/dx = 0 and then gather all of the terms: d(p + .5 * r * u^2)/dx = 0 Integrating this differential equation: ps + .5 * r * u^2 = constant = pt This equation looks exactly like the incompressible form of Bernoulli's equation. Each term in this equation has the dimensions of a pressure (force/area); ps is the static pressure, the constant pt is called the total pressure, and .5 * r * u^2 is called the dynamic pressure because it is a pressure term associated with the velocity u of the flow. Dynamic pressure is often assigned the letter q in aerodynamics: q = .5 * r * u^2 The dynamic pressure is a defined property of a moving flow of gas. We have performed this simple derivation to determine the form of the dynamic pressure, but we can use and apply the idea of dynamic pressure in much more complex flows, like compressible flows or viscous flows. In particular, the aerodynamic forces acting on an object as it moves through the air are directly proportional to the dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure is therefore used in the definition of the lift coefficient and the drag coefficient. As we have seen, dynamic pressure appears in Bernoullis Equation even though that relationship was originally derived using energy conservation. The dynamic pressure depends on both the local value of the density and the velocity of the flow, or rocket. The density of the air decreases with altitude in a complex manner. The velocity of a rocket during launch is constantly increasing with altitude. Therefore, the dynamic pressure on a rocket during launch is initially zero because the velocity is zero. The dynamic pressure increases because of the increasing velocity to some maximum value, called the maximum dynamic pressure, or Max Q. Then the dynamic pressure decreases because of the decreasing density. The Max Q condition is a design constraint on full scale rockets. You can investigate the variation of dynamic pressure with altitude and velocity by using our atmosphere simulator.

The drag coefficient is a number which engineers use to model all of the complex dependencies of drag on shape and flow conditions. The drag coefficient Cd is equal to the drag D divided by the quantity: density r times reference area A times one half of the velocity V squared. Cd = D / (.5 * r * V^2 * A) This slide shows some typical values of the drag coefficient for a variety of shapes. The values shown here were determined experimentally by placing models in a wind tunnel and measuring the amount of drag, the tunnel conditions of velocity and density, and the reference area of the model. The drag equation given above was then used to calculate the drag coefficient. The projected frontal area of each object was used as the reference area. A flat plate has Cd = 1.28, a wedge shaped prism with the wedge facing downstream has Cd = 1.14, a sphere has a Cd that varies from .07 to .5, a bullet Cd = .295, and a typical aerofoil Cd = .045. We can study the effect of shape on drag by comparing the values of drag coefficient for any two objects as long as the same reference area is used and the Mach number and Reynolds number are matched. All of the drag coefficients on this slide were produced in low speed (subsonic) wind tunnels and at similar Reynolds number, except for the sphere. A quick comparison shows that a flat plate gives the highest drag and a streamlined symmetric aerofoil gives the lowest drag, by a factor of almost 30! Shape has a very large effect on the amount of drag produced. The drag coefficient for a sphere is given with a range of values because the drag on a sphere is highly dependent on Reynolds number. Flow past a sphere, or cylinder, goes through a number of transitions with velocity. At very low velocity, a stable pair of vortices is formed on the downwind side. As velocity increases, the vortices become unstable and are alternately shed downstream. As velocity is

increased even more, the boundary layer transitions to chaotic turbulent flow with vortices of many different scales being shed in a turbulent wake from the body. Each of these flow regimes produce a different amount of drag on the sphere. Comparing the flat plate and the prism, and the sphere and the bullet, we see that the downstream shape can be modified to reduce drag. A typical value for the drag coefficient of a model rocket is .75, based on the cross-sectional area of the rocket. As shown above, this value can be reduced slightly by adding a fairing, or small cone, to the rear of the rocket between the body and the nozzle exit. Long thin rockets have less drag than short thick rockets.

The amount of drag generated by an object depends on the size of the object. Drag is an aerodynamic force and therefore depends on the pressure variation of the air around the body as it moves through the air. The total aerodynamic force is equal to the pressure times the surface area around the body. Drag is the component of this force along the flight direction. Like the other aerodynamic force, lift, the drag is directly proportional to the area of the object. Doubling the area doubles the drag. There are several different areas from which to choose when developing the reference area used in the drag equation. If we think of drag as being caused by friction between the air and the body, a logical choice would be the total surface area (As) of the body. If we think of drag as being a resistance to the flow, a more logical choice would be the frontal area (Af) of the body which is perpendicular to the flow direction. This is the area shown in blue on the figure. Each of the areas are proportional to the other areas, as designated by the "~" sign on the figure. Since the drag coefficient is determined experimentally, by measuring the drag and measuring the area and performing the necessary math to produce the coefficient, we are free to use any area which can be easily measured. If we choose the surface area, the computed coefficient has a different value than if we choose the cross-sectional area, but the drag is the same, and the coefficients are related by the ratio of the areas. In practice, drag coefficients are reported based on a wide variety of object areas. In the report, the test engineer must specify what area is used and when using the data the reader may have to convert the drag coefficient using the ratio of the areas.

This slide shows the fin shapes for a variety of rockets as viewed from the side while looking onto the fin. This view is called a planform of the fin. You can see that fins come in many different planforms: rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, or even elliptical. To determine the aerodynamic force that a fin generates, you must be able to calculate the area of any of these shapes. This skill is taught in middle school and used every day by design engineers. The area is the two-dimensional amount of space that an object occupies. Area is measured along the surface of an object and has dimensions of length squared; for example, square feet of material, or centimeters squared. On the slide we have listed the formula to calculate the area of a variety of shapes: The area of a rectangle is equal to the height h times the base b; A=h*b The equation for the area of a trapezoid is one half the sum of the top t and bottom b times the height h; A=h*[t+b]/2 The area of a triangle is equal to one half of the base b times the height h; A = .5 * b * h Some fins are elliptically shaped. For an ellipse with a semi-axis a and semi-axis b, the area is given by: A = pi * a * b

where pi is the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle and is equal to 3.1415. A special case of the ellipse is a circle, in which the semi-axis is equal to the radius r. The area of a circle is: A = pi * r^2 If the root of an elliptical fin is given by cr and the distance from the root to the tip is given by ct, the area of the fin is: A = pi * cr *ct For a compound configuration like the Space Shuttle, you have to break up the fin into simple shapes which you can compute, and then add them together.

Drag depends on the density of the air, the square of the velocity, the air's viscosity and compressibility, the size and shape of the body, and the body's inclination to the flow. In general, the dependence on body shape, inclination, air viscosity, and compressibility is very complex. One way to deal with complex dependencies is to characterize the dependence by a single variable. For drag, this variable is called the drag coefficient, designated "Cd." This allows us to collect all the effects, simple and complex, into a single equation. The drag equation states that drag D is equal to the drag coefficient Cd times the density r times half of the velocity V squared times the reference area A. D = Cd * A * .5 * r * V^2 For given air conditions, shape, and inclination of the object, we must determine a value for Cd to determine drag. Determining the value of the drag coefficient is more difficult than determining the lift coefficient because of the multiple sources of drag. The drag coefficient given above includes form drag, skin friction drag, and wave drag components. Drag coefficients are almost always determined experimentally using a wind tunnel. Notice that the area (A) given in the drag equation is given as a reference area. The drag depends directly on the size of the body. Since we are dealing with aerodynamic forces, the dependence can be characterized by some area. But which area do we choose? If we think of drag as being caused by friction between the air and the body, a logical choice would be the total surface area of the body. If we think of drag as being a resistance to the flow, a more logical choice would be the frontal area of

the body that is perpendicular to the flow direction. And finally, if we want to compare with the lift coefficient, we should use the same wing area used to derive the lift coefficient. Since the drag coefficient is usually determined experimentally by measuring drag and the area and then performing the division to produce the coefficient, we are free to use any area that can be easily measured. If we choose the wing area, rather than the cross-sectional area, the computed coefficient will have a different value. But the drag is the same, and the coefficients are related by the ratio of the areas. In practice, drag coefficients are reported based on a wide variety of object areas. In the report, the test engineer must specify the area used; when using the data, the reader may have to convert the drag coefficient using the ratio of the areas. In the equation given above, the density is designated by the Greek letter "rho." We do not use "d" for density since "d" is often used to specify distance. The combination of terms "density times the square of the velocity divided by two" is called the dynamic pressure and appears in Bernoulli's pressure equation.

Lift depends on the density of the air, the square of the velocity, the air's viscosity and compressibility, the surface area over which the air flows, the shape of the body, and the body's inclination to the flow. In general, the dependence on body shape, inclination, air viscosity, and compressibility is very complex. One way to deal with complex dependencies is to characterize the dependence by a single variable. For lift, this variable is called the lift coefficient, designated "Cl." This allows us to collect all the effects, simple and complex, into a single equation. The lift equation states that lift L is equal to the lift coefficient Cl times the density r times half of the velocity Vsquared times the wing area A. L = Cl * A * .5 * r * V^2 For given air conditions, shape, and inclination of the object, we have to determine a value for Cl to determine the lift. For some simple flow conditions, geometries, and low inclinations, engineers can determine the value of Cl mathematically. But, in general, this parameter is determined experimentally. In the equation given above, the density is designated by the letter "r." We do not use "d" for density, since "d" is often used to specify distance. In many textbooks on aerodynamics, the density is given by the Greek symbol "rho" (Greek for "r") as used in the figure. The combination of terms "density times the square of the velocity divided by two" is called the dynamic pressure and appears in Bernoulli's pressure equation.

CONCLUSION

To summarize, for any object immersed in a fluid, the mechanical forces are transmitted at every point on the surface of the body. The forces are transmitted through the pressure, which acts perpendicular to the surface. The net force can be found by integrating (or summing) the pressure times the area around the entire surface. For a moving flow, the pressure will vary from point to point because the velocity varies from point to point. For some simple flow problems, we can determine the pressure distribution (and the net force) if we know the velocity distribution by using Bernoulli's equation.

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