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SOIL

Soil classification

From an engineering viewpoint, the ground beneath a site can conveniently be divided into the categories, which are based upon generalizations of its expected behaviour in construction works.

SOIL STRATUM
2 layers
Top soil Ground soil

Top soil

150-300mm from soil surface Contains vegetation, rubbish & rotten materials Not suitable in supporting foundation/structure Usually the top soil will be cart away before construction

GROUND SOIL

Situated between top soil & rock layer The thickness of the soil varies depending on the rock formation This layer are compacted naturally which occasionally can support light construction

GEOTECHNICAL SYSTEM
Soil used to be rock, which was tuned into soil by weathering, chemical and mechanical forces. Nature recycles the soil to rock, that this takes millions of years.

NATURAL RECYCLING OF SOIL TO ROCK

Metamorphic rock

Sedimentary rock

Igneous rock

Sediments

Residual soil

SOIL
Three main size groups : Sand (0.05 to 2.00 mm) Silt Clay (0.002 to 0.05 mm) ( less than 0.002 mm

HORIZONS
Surface horizon is usually referred to as the O layer. It consists of loose organic matter such as fallen leaves and other biomass. Below is the A horizon, containing a mixture organic mineral materials and organics.

HORIZONS
Next is E horizons, layer from which clays, iron and aluminum oxides have been lost by leaching process Below horizons E is B, which most of the iron, clays, and other leached materials have accumulated. After that is C horizons consisting of partially weather bedrock And last is R horizons of hard bedrock

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Color, Texture, Aggregation, Porosity, Ion content and pH all important to soil characteristics

COLOR

Soils come in a wide range of colors. Shades of brown, red, orange, yellow, gray and even blue or green. A dark color usually indicates the presence of organic matter.

TEXTURE
A soil texture depends on its content of the three main mineral components of the soil, sand ,silt and clay. Very fine textured soils may be poorly drained. Medium texture and a relatively even proportion of all particle sizes are most versatile

AGGREGATION
Individual soil particles tend to be bound together into lager units referred to as aggregates or soil pads. Aggregation occurs as a result of complex chemical forces acting an small soil components in soil act as glue binding particles together.

POROSITY
Part of the soil that is not solid is made up pores of various sizes and shapes Porosity greatly affects water movement and gas exchange.

ION CONTENT
Particularly the clay, hold groupings of atoms known as ions.

These ions carry a negative charge.


Like magnets, these negative ions (anions) attract positive ions (cations)

pH
Another important chemical measured is soil pH.

Refers to the soil acidity or alkalinity.


A greater concentration of hydrogen results in a lower pH, meaning greater acidity

Categories of soil

Soil and rock description


Soil and rock description is to a certain degree subjective. In order to minimise the subjective element a systematic examination should be carried out using a standard terminology, whether the material be in a natural exposure, trial pit face or samples recovered from a borehole.

Soil and rock description


The use of a standardised scheme of description ensures that: (i) all factors are considered and examined in logical sequence (ii) no essential information is omitted (iii) no matter who describes the sample, the same basic description is given using all terms in an identical way (iv) the description conveys an accurate mental image to the readers (v) any potential user can quickly extract the relevant information.

Soil description
Samples must be described in a routine way, with each element of the description having a fixed position within the overall description: a) consistency or relative density; b) fabric or fissuring;

Soil description
c) colour; d) subsidiary constituents; e) angularity or grading of principal soil type; f) PRINCIPAL SOIL TYPE (in capitals); g) more detailed comments on constituents or fabric; h) (geological origin, if known) (in brackets); and i) soil classification symbols (optional).

Soil description
Descriptions should be simple, since very detailed comments on all aspects of a soil lead to confusion. Some examples are given below: Very stiff fissured dark grey CLAY (London clay) (a) (b) (c) (f) (h) Loose brown very sandy sub-angular coarse GRAVEL with pockets of soft grey clay (a) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Firm laminated brown SILT and CLAY (a) (b) (c) (f) (f)

Soil types

Soil type

SOIL CHARACTERISTIC IN RELATION TO CHOICE OF FOUNDATIONS

Soil have different attribute when load implied on them. The characteristic are:
Compressibility Permeability Plasticity

Foundation the interface of a building structure with the ground Shallow Foundation- a type of foundation that is used when the earth directly beneath a structure has sufficient bearing capacity to sustain the loads from the structure Deep Foundation- a type of foundation that is used when the soil near the ground surface is weak The bearing capacity- is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil.

CHOICES OF FOUNDATION
Solid chalk, sands and gravels or sand and gravels with only small proportions of clay, dense silty sands Uniform, firm and stiff clays -Where vegetation is insignificant -Where trees and shrubs are growing or to be planted close to the site -Where trees are felled to clear the site and construction is due to start soon afterward Shallow strip or pad footings as appropriate to the load bearing members of the building

-Bored piles and ground beams, or strip foundations at least 1m deep -Bored piles and ground beams -Reinforced bored piles of sufficient length with the top 3m sleeved from the surrounding ground and with suspended floor

Soft clays, soft silty clays


Peat

Strip footing up to 1m wide if bearing capacity is sufficient, or raft


Bored piles with temporary steel lining or precast or insitu piles driven to firm strata below Thin reinforced rafts for individuals houses with load bearing walls and for flexible building

Mining and other subsidence area

CN Tower

KLCC Tower

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS

SPECIFICALLY RELATED TO THE SUBSOIL BENEATH THE SITE UNDER INVESTIGATION AND COULD BE PART OF OR SEPARATE FROM THE SITE INVESTIGATION

A well designed soil investigation can often lead to project cost savings in the long term by allowing contractors to foresee potential problems.

PURPOSE
1. Determine the suitability of the site for the proposed project. 2. Determine an adequate and economic foundation design. 3. Determine the difficulties which may arise during the construction process and period. 4. Determine the occurrence and/or cause of all changes in subsoil conditions.

SOIL SAMPLES
Disturbed Soil Samples Soil samples obtained from boreholes and trial pits. The method of extraction disturbs the natural structure for visual grading, establishing the moisture content and some lab tests. Disturbed soil samples should be stored in labelled air tight jars.

SOIL SAMPLES
Undisturbed Soil Samples Soil samples obtained using coring tools which preserve the natural structure and properties of the subsoil. The extracted undisturbed soil samples are labelled and laid in wooden boxes for dispatch to a lab for test. This method of obtaining soil samples is suitable for rock and clay subsoils but difficulties can be experienced in trying to obtain undisturbed soil samples in other types of subsoil.

DEPTH OF SOIL INVESTIGATION

Before determining the actual method of obtaining the required subsoil samples, the depth to which the soil investigation should be carried out must be established.

DEPTH OF SOIL INVESTIGATION

Factors that should be considered:1. Proposed foundation type; 2. Pressure bulb of proposed foundation; 3. Relationship of proposed foundation to other foundations.

SOIL INVESTIGATION METHODS


Method chosen will depend on several factors:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Size of contract; Type of proposed foundation; Type of sample required; Type of subsoils which may be encountered.

SOIL INVESTIGATION METHODS


As a general guide the most suitable methods in terms of investigation depth are:

1. Foundations up to 3.000d trial pits; 2. Foundations up to 30.000d borings; 3. Foundations over 30.000d deep boring and in-situ examination from tunnels and/or deep pits.

TYPES OF INVESTIGATION
Generally the following soil investigation techniques are employed for the majority of projects:

Trial Pitting Window sampling and Dynamic Probe Testing Cable Percussive Boreholes Rotary Drilled Boreholes

Results of site investigations can be presented as either factual or interpretive reports with recommendations relating to both geotechnical and environmental considerations

TRIAL PITTING
Trial pitting can be carried out by a variety of methods from hand dug pits to machine excavated trenches. Trial pitting is generally carried out to a maximum depth of 4.5m with standard excavation plant and, depending on soil conditions, is generally suitable for most low rise developments.

TRIAL PITTING
All trial pit investigations are supervised by experienced engineers with a thorough understanding of geology and soil mechanics.

Shallow investigation by the excavation of trial pits ideally suited to smaller scale projects, especially housing; also used for soak away testing and extensively on contaminated sites where direct observation of the ground conditions in-situ is often invaluable.

WINDOW SAMPLING
Window sampling is carried out by either tracked percussive samplers or hand held pneumatic samplers. Samples are retrieved in seamless plastic tubes for logging by a suitably qualified engineer. Window sampling is particularly suited to restricted access sites, contamination investigations, and where disturbance must be kept to a minimum.

WINDOW SAMPLING
The track mounted equipment is also capable of carrying out dynamic penetrometer testing. This is a continuous soil test procedure which enables the relative density or strength of the ground to be assessed to depths of 10m or more.

CABLE PERCUSSIVE BOREHOLES


Suitable for most projects, cable percussive boreholes are a common method of site investigation.
Using a land rover towed rig or a specialist cut down rig suited to restricted access locations most sites can be investigated

The preferred method for deeper investigation in soft or marginal ground, where sufficient information cannot be obtained from trial pits.

CABLE PERCUSSIVE BOREHOLES


In-situ testing techniques including Standard Penetration Testing, Permeability Testing, Borehole Vane Testing and Packer Testing can all be carried out in the boreholes in order to provide information for geotechnical design

CABLE PERCUSSIVE BOREHOLES


Disturbed and undisturbed samples are retrieved from the boreholes for inspection and logging by engineers and subsequent testing in a laboratories.

A standard cable percussion drilling rig

Operation of cable percussion rig for working in areas of restricted access or


with restricted headroom

ROTARY DRILLED BOREHOLES


Rotary drilling techniques are employed where boreholes are required into very dense gravel or bedrock. Samples of bedrock are recovered in seamless plastic tubes for subsequent logging by a suitably qualified engineer and for laboratory testing

ROTARY DRILLED BOREHOLES


Most of rotary coring work relies on the use of drilling rigs which can also obtain continuous samples of soils using dynamic sampling equipment.
The rigs are suitable for limited access works.

rotary drilling techniques on a jackup platform

OTHER EXAMPLES..
Drilling in restricted areas

Working on Escarpments

Working on slopes.

It can be anywhere

THANK YOU.

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