FUNCTION OF EACH STAGE OF A LOW-POWER AMPLIFIER

A brief Google search yields countless examples of electronics projects of highly-resolvable complexity by
enthusiastic DIY-ers. A popular, quickly achievable project is the homemade audio amplifier. This guide will
describe the function of each stage of such a design. As you may imagine, audio amplifiers can be very
complex products, but this one will be a simple monophonic amplifier with 2-band EQ suitable for low-
power applications:
Definition of components used:
Op-Amp an active electronic voltage amplifier that provides gain to a circuit.
Resistor a passive electronic device used to limit series currents by the relationship I = V/R
Potentiometer a variable resistor used to control the level of amplification in this circuit.
Capacitor a passive electronic device that stores energy in the electric field. It will be used in combination
with a resistor to act as a signal equalizer.

Thisisthecompletedcircuitwithindividualstageslabeled.



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Stage 1: Permanent gain stage

This stage uses a combination of resistors to boost the signal according to the equation A
1
=
R
]
R
i
.
Stage 2: Adjustable gain stage
This stage allows the listener to adjust the volume as desired. The formula is similar to that of stage one,
except the feedback resistor is replaced with a potentiometer to provide volume control. The equation reads
A
2
=
R
2
R
1
.
Stage 3: 2-band equalization stage
This stage uses 2 potentiometers in an RC network to equalize bass and treble frequencies of the audio signal
independently. In nearly every implementation of this circuit, R
3
= R
4
and R
5
= R
6
. With these restrictions,
the following equations ualization behavior.

govern the eq
Bass EQ frequency:
B
= (2nR
5
C
2
)
-1

Bass EQ boost/cut range:
R
S
+R

R
S

Treble EQ frequency:
1
= (2nR
3
C
3
)
-1

Treble EQ boost/cut range:
R
S
+2R

R
3


It is important to provide equalization in an audio circuit due to the nonlinear response of our eardrums. A
curve representing ear sensitivity vs frequency, known as the Fletcher-Munson Curve, is attached in the
Appendix. Following it is a possible frequency response plot of an equalized circuit.














Appendix
Fletcher-Munson Loudness Curve

Possible real-world audio equalization curve





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