Canning of Food Products

Preserved food.

INTRODUCTION
Canning is a method of preserving food in which the food contents are processed and sealed in an airtight container. Canning provides a typical shelf life ranging from one to five years, although under specific circumstances a freeze-dried canned product, such as canned, dried lentils, can last as long as 30 years in an edible state. In 1795 the French military offered a cash price of 12,000 francs for a new method to preserve food. Nicolas Appert suggested canning and the process was first proven in 1806 in test with the French navy and the prize awarded in 1809 or 1810. The packaging prevents microorganisms from proliferating inside. To prevent the food from being spoiled before and during containment, a number of methods are used: pasteurisation, boiling (and other applications of high temperature over a period of time), refrigeration, freezing, drying, vacuum treatment, antimicrobial agents that are natural to the recipe of the foods being preserved, a sufficient dose of ionizing radiation, submersion in a
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entering

and

strong saline solution, acid, base, osmotically extreme (for example very sugary) or other microbially-challenging environments. Other than sterilization, no method is perfectly dependable as a preservative. For example, the microorganism Clostridium botulinum (which causes botulism), can only be eliminated at temperatures above the boiling point. From a public safety point of view, foods with low acidity (a pH more than 4.6) need sterilization under high temperature (116-130 C). To achieve temperatures above the boiling point requires the use of a pressure canner. Foods that must be pressure canned include

most vegetables, meat, seafood, poultry, and dairy products. The only foods that may be safely canned in an ordinary boiling water bath are highly acidic ones with a pH below 4.6, such as fruits, pickled vegetables, or other foods to which acidic additives have been added.

TYPES OF CANNING JAR

Use only standard home canning jars. Glass canning jars, also known as mason jars after their nineteenth century American inventor, John L. Mason, are the standard jars to use in home canning. These reusable jars are produced in a variety of sizes, some with decorative finishes for gifting. They are made to seal properly, to be durable with repeated use and to be used safely in a steam pressure canner. The manufacturer's name is usually blown in the side of the jar. Recycled jars from the grocery store, also known as packers' jars, are not made for home canning. The jars that contain pickles, mayonnaise or peanut butter are not made for the rigors of home canning. Even though standard home canning lids may seem to fit these jars, the lids may not seal because the glass is not as thick and slightly irregular. The jar neck may be too shallow for a standard home canning band to hold the lid tightly against the jar.

In addition to sealing problems with commercial jars they may also be dangerous. Most of them are made of thin glass and are not heat tempered, as regular home canning jars. They may not withstand the high pressure of canning and break. When you open the canner, the jars may still be under pressure. The quick drop in temperature could cause the recycled jar to explode.

All jams, jellies, and pickled products processed less than 10 minutes should be filled into sterile empty jars. To sterilize empty jars, put them right side up on the rack in a boiling-water canner. Fill the canner and jars with hot (not boiling) water to 1 inch above the tops of the jars. Boil 10 minutes at altitudes of less than 1,000 ft. At higher elevations, boil 1 additional minute for each additional 1,000 ft. elevation. Remove and drain hot sterilized jars one at a time. Save the hot water for processing filled jars. Fill jars with food, add lids, and tighten screw bands.

Empty jars used for vegetables, meats, and fruits to be processed in a pressure canner need not be presterilized. It is also unnecessary to presterilize jars for fruits, tomatoes, and pickled or fermented foods that will be processed 10 minutes or longer in a boiling-water canner.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF CANNING

During the first years of the Napoleonic Wars, the French government offered a hefty cash award of 12,000 francs to any inventor who could devise a cheap and effective method of preserving large amounts of food. The larger armies of the period required increased and regular supplies of quality food. Limited food availability was among the factors limiting military campaigns to the summer and autumn months. In 1809, a French confectioner and brewer, Nicolas Appert, observed that food cooked inside a jar did not spoil unless the seals leaked, and developed a method of sealing food in glass jars. The reason for lack of spoilage was unknown at the time, since it would be another 50 years before Louis Pasteur demonstrated the role of microbes in food spoilage. However, glass containers presented challenges for transportation.

Appert canning jar

Nicolas Appert, developer of the canning process. Glass jars were largely replaced in commercial canneries with cylindrical tin or wrought-iron canisters (later shortened to "cans") following the work of Peter Durand (1810). Cans are cheaper and quicker to make, and much less fragile than glass jars. Glass jars have remained popular for some high-value products and inhome canning. Can openers were not invented for another thirty years at first, soldiers had to cut the cans open with bayonets or smash them open with rocks. The French Army began experimenting with issuing canned foods to its soldiers, but the slow process of canning foods and the even slower development and transport stages prevented the army from shipping large amounts across the French Empire, and the war ended before the process was perfected. Unfortunately for Appert, the factory which he had built with his prize money was razed in 1814 byAllied soldiers invading France.

1914 magazine advertisement for cookwarewith instructions for home canning. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the canning process was gradually employed in other European countries and in the US. The United Kingdom Based on Appert's methods of food preservation, Peter Durand patented a process in the United Kingdom in 1810. He did not develop the process, selling his patent in 1811 to Bryan Donkin and John Hall, who were in business as Donkin Hall and Gamble, of Bermondsey. Bryan Donkin developed the process of packaging food in sealed airtight cans, made of tinned wrought iron. Initially, the canning process was slow and labourintensive, as each large can had to be hand-made, and took up to six hours to cook, making canned food too expensive for ordinary people. The main

market for the food at this stage was the British Army and Royal Navy. By 1817 Donkin recorded that he had sold 3000 worth of canned meat in six months. In 1824 Sir William Edward Parry took canned beef and pea soup with him on his voyage to the Arctic in HMS Fury, during his search for a northwestern passage to India. In 1829, Admiral Sir James Ross also took canned food to the Arctic, as did Sir John Franklin in 1845. Some of his stores were found by the search expedition led by Captain (later Admiral Sir) Leopold McLintock in 1857. One of these cans was opened in 1939, and was edible and nutritious, though it was not analysed for contamination by the lead solder used in its manufacture. Throughout the mid-19th century, canned food became a status symbol amongst middle-class households in Europe, becoming something of a frivolous novelty. Early methods of manufacture employed

poisonous lead solder for sealing the cans, which may have worsened the disastrous outcome of the 1845 Franklin expedition to chart and navigate the Northwest Passage. Increasing mechanisation of the canning process, coupled with a huge increase in urban populations across Europe, resulted in a rising demand for canned food. A number of inventions and improvements followed, and by the 1860s smaller machine-made steel cans were possible, and the time to cook food in sealed cans had been reduced from around six hours to thirty minutes. United States of America Canned food also began to spread beyond Europe Robert Ayars established the first American canning factory in New York City in 1812, using
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improved

tin-plated

wrought-iron

cans

for

preserving oysters, meats, fruits and vegetables. Demand for canned food greatly increased during wars. Large-scale wars in the nineteenth century, such as the Crimean War, American Civil War, and Franco-Prussian

War introduced increasing numbers of working-class men to canned food, and allowed canning companies to expand their businesses to meet military demands for non-perishable food, allowing companies to manufacture in bulk and sell to wider civilian markets after wars ended. Urban populations in Victorian Britain demanded ever-increasing quantities of cheap, varied, quality food that they could keep at home without having to go shopping daily. In response, companies such as Nestl, Heinz, and others emerged to provide quality canned food for sale to working class city-dwellers. In particular, Crosse and Blackwell took over the concern of Donkin Hall and Gamble. The late 19th century saw the range of canned food available to urban populations greatly increase, as canners competed with each other using novel foodstuffs, highly decorated printed labels, and lower prices. World War I Demand for canned food skyrocketed during World War I, as military commanders sought vast quantities of cheap, high-calorie food to feed their millions of soldiers, which could be transported safely,

survive trench conditions, and not spoil in transport. Throughout the war, soldiers generally subsisted on low-quality canned foodstuffs, such as the British "Bully Beef" (cheap corned beef), pork and beansand Maconochies Irish Stew, but by 1916 widespread boredom with cheap canned food amongst soldiers resulted in militaries purchasing better-quality food to
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improve morale, and the complete meals in a can began to appear. In 1917 the French Army began issuing canned French cuisine, such as coq au vin, while the Italian Army experimented with canned ravioli and spaghetti

bolognese. Shortages of canned food in the British Army in 1917 led to the government issuing cigarettes and amphetamines to soldiers to suppress their appetites. After the war, companies that had supplied military canned food improved the quality of their goods for civilian sale. Today, tin-coated steel is the material most commonly used. Laminate vacuum pouches are also used for canning, such as used inMREs and Capri Sun drinks. Double seams

Women working in a cannery Invented in 1888 by Max Ams, modern double seams provide an airtight seal to the tin can. This airtight nature is crucial to keeping bacteria out of the can and keeping its contents sealed inside. Thus, double seamed cans are also known as Sanitary Cans. Developed in 1900 in Europe, this sort of can was made of the traditional cylindrical body made with tin plate. The two ends (lids) were attached using what is now called a double seam. A can thus sealed is impervious to contamination by creating two tight continuous folds
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between the cans cylindrical body and the lids. This eliminated the need for solder and allowed improvements in manufacturing speed, reducing cost. Double seaming uses rollers to shape the can, lid and the final double seam. To make a sanitary can and lid suitable for double seaming, manufacture begins with a sheet of coated tin plate. To create the can body, rectangles are cut and curled around a die, and welded together creating a cylinder with a side seam. Rollers are then used to flare out one or both ends of the cylinder to create a quarter circle flange around the circumference. Precision is required to ensure that the welded sides are perfectly aligned, as any misalignment will cause inconsistent flange shape, compromising its integrity. A circle is then cut from the sheet using a die cutter. The circle is shaped in a stamping press to create a downward countersink to fit snugly in to the can body. The result can be compared to an upside down and very flat top hat. The outer edge is then curled down and around about 140 degrees using rollers to create the end curl. The result is a steel tube with a flanged edge, and a countersunk steel disc with a curled edge. A rubber compound is put inside the curl.

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Seaming

Opened can The body and end are brought together in a seamer and held in place by the base plate and chuck, respectively. The base plate provides a sure footing for the can body during the seaming operation and the chuck fits snugly in to the end (lid). The result is the countersink of the end sits inside the top of the can body just below the flange. The end curl protrudes slightly beyond the flange. First operation Once brought together in the seamer, the seaming head presses a first operation roller against the end curl. The end curl is pressed against the flange curling it in toward the body and under the flange. The flange is also bent downward, and the end and body are now loosely joined together. The first operation roller is then retracted. At this point five thicknesses of steel exist in the seam. From the outside in they are:

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End Flange End Curl Body Countersink

Second operation The seaming head then engages the second operation roller against the partly formed seam. The second operation presses all five steel components together tightly to form the final seal. The five layers in the final seam are then called; a) End, b) Body Hook, c) Cover Hook, d) Body, e) Countersink. All sanitary cans require a filling medium within the seam because otherwise the metal-to-metal contact will not maintain a hermetic seal. In most cases, a rubberized compound is placed inside the end curl radius, forming the critical seal between the end and the body. Probably the most important innovation since the introduction of double seams is the welded side seam. Prior to the welded side seam, the can body was folded and/or soldered together, leaving a relatively thick side seam. The thick side seam required that the side seam end juncture at the end curl to have more metal to curl around before closing in behind the Body Hook or flange, with a greater opportunity for error.

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Seamer setup and quality assurance Many different parts during the seaming process are critical in ensuring that a can is airtight and vacuum sealed. The dangers of a can that is not hermetically sealed are contamination by foreign objects (bacteria or fungicide sprays), or that the can could leak or spoil. One important part is the seamer setup. This process is usually performed by an experienced technician. Amongst the parts that need setup are seamer rolls and chucks which have to be set in their exact position (using a feeler gauge or a clearance gauge). The lifter pressure and position, roll and chuck designs, tooling wear, and bearing wear all contribute to a good double seam. Incorrect setups can be non-intuitive. For example, due to

the springback effect, a seam can appear loose, when in reality it was closed too tight and has opened up like a spring. For this reason, experienced operators and good seamer setup are critical to ensure that double seams are properly closed. Quality control usually involves taking full cans from the line - one per seamer head, at least once or twice per shift, and performing a teardown operation (wrinkle/tightness), mechanical tests (external thickness, seamer length/height and countersink) as well as cutting the seam open with a twin blade saw and measuring with a double seam inspection system. The combination of these measurements will determine the seam's quality.

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Use of a Statistical Process Control (SPC) software in conjunction with a manual double-seam monitor, computerized double seam scanner, or even a fully automatic double seam inspection system makes the laborious process of double seam inspection faster and much more accurate. Statistically tracking the performance of each head or seaming station of the can seamer allows for better prediction of can seamer issues, and may be used to plan maintenance when convenient, rather than to simply react after bad or unsafe cans have been produced. Nutrition value Canning is a way of processing food to extend its shelf life. The idea is to make food available and edible long after the processing time. A 1997 study found that canned fruits and vegetables provide as much dietary fiber and vitamins as the same corresponding fresh or frozen foods, and in some cases, even more. The heating process during canning appears to make dietary fiber more soluble, and therefore more readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts. Canned tomatoes have a higher availablelycopene content. Consequently, canned meat and vegetables are often among the list of food items that are stocked during emergencies.

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METHODOLOGY Food Processing

Michael Foods egg-processing plant in Wakefield, Nebraska

Food processing is the transformation of raw ingredients into food, or of food into other forms. Food processing typically takes

clean, harvested crops orbutchered animal products and uses these to produce attractive, marketableand often long shelf-life food products. Similar processes are used to produceanimal feed. History

A form of pre-made split-pea soup that has become traditional

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Grain silos in Ardrossan, Scotland Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages when crude processing incorporated slaughtering, fermenting, sun drying, preserving with salt, and various types of cooking(such as roasting, smoking, steaming, and oven baking). Salt-preservation was especially common for foods that constituted warrior and sailors' diets, until the introduction of canning methods. Evidence for the existence of these methods can be found in the writings of the ancient Greek,Chaldean, Egyptian and Roman civilizations as well as archaeological evidence from Europe, North and South America and Asia. These tried and tested processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial revolution. Examples of ready-meals also exist from preindustrial revolution times such as the Cornish

pasty and Haggis. During ancient times and today these are considered processing foods. Food processing has also helped create quick, nutritious meals to give to busy families. Modern food processing technology in the 19th and 20th century was largely developed to serve military needs. In 1809 Nicolas Appertinvented a vacuum bottling technique that would supply food for French troops, and this contributed to the development of tinning and then canning by Peter

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Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the lead used in cans, canned goods would later become a staple around the world. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1862, was a significant advance in ensuring the micro-biological safety of food. In the 20th century, World War II, the space race and the rising consumer society in developed countries (including the United States) contributed to the growth of food processing with such advances as spray drying, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the introduction of artificial sweeteners, colouring agents, and preservatives such as sodium benzoate. In the late 20th century products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed. In western Europe and North America, the second half of the 20th century witnessed a rise in the pursuit of convenience. Food processing companies marketed their products especially towards middle-class working wives and mothers. Frozen foods (often credited to Clarence Birdseye) found their success in sales of juice concentrates and "TV dinners". Processors utilised the perceived value of time to appeal to the postwar population, and this same appeal contributes to the success of convenience foods today.

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Benefits and drawbacks Benefits

Libby's brand 'Potted Meat Food Product'

Processed seafood - fish, squid, prawnballs and simulated crab sticks (surimi) Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and distribution tasks, and increasing food consistency. In addition, it increases seasonal availability of many foods, enables transportation of delicate perishable foods across long distances and makes many kinds of foods safe to eat by de-activating spoilage and pathogenic micro-organisms.
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Modern supermarkets would not exist without modern food processing techniques, long voyages would not be possible and military campaigns would be significantly more difficult and costly to execute. Processed foods are usually less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh foods and are better suited for long distance transportation from the source to the consumer. When they were first introduced, some processed foods helped to alleviate food shortages and improved the overall nutrition of populations as it made many new foods available to the masses. Processing can also reduce the incidence of food borne disease. Fresh materials, such as fresh produce and raw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g. Salmonella) capable of causing serious illnesses. The extremely varied modern diet is only truly possible on a wide scale because of food processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as well as the elimination of much hard labour gives the modern eater easy access to a wide variety of food unimaginable to their ancestors. The act of processing can often improve the taste of food significantly. Mass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual production of meals from raw ingredients. Therefore, a large profit potential exists for the manufacturers and suppliers of processed food products. Individuals may see a benefit in convenience, but rarely see any direct financial cost benefit in using processed food as compared to home preparation.

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Processed food freed people from the large amount of time involved in preparing and cooking "natural" unprocessed foods. The increase in free time allows people much more choice in life style than previously allowed. In many families the adults are working away from home and therefore there is little time for the preparation of food based on fresh ingredients. The food industry offers products that fulfill many different needs: From peeled potatoes that only have to be boiled at home to fully prepared ready meals that can be heated up in the microwave oven within a few minutes. Modern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with allergies, diabetics, and other people who cannot consume some common food elements. Food processing can also add extra nutrients such as vitamins. Drawbacks Any processing of food can have slight effects on its nutritional density. Vitamin C, for example, is destroyed by heat and therefore canned fruits have a lower content of vitamin C than fresh ones. TheUSDA conducted a study in 2004, creating a nutrient retention table for several foods. A cursory glance of the table indicates that, in the majority of foods, processing reduces nutrients by a minimal amount. On average any given nutrient may be reduced by as little as 5%-20%. Another safety concern in food processing is the use of food additives. The health risks of any additives will vary greatly from person to person, in example sugar as an additive would be detrimental to those with diabetes. In theEuropean Union, only food additives (e.g., sweeteners, preservatives,
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stabilizers) that have been approved as safe for human consumption by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) are allowed, at specified levels, for use in food products. Approved additives receive an E number (E for Europe), which at the same time simplifies communication about food additives in the list of ingredients across the different languages of the EU. Food processing is typically a mechanical process that utilizes large mixing, grinding, chopping and emulsifying equipment in the production process. These processes inherently introduce a number of contaminate risks. As a mixing bowl or grinder is used over time the food contact parts will tend to fail and fracture. This type of failure will introduce in to the product stream small to large metal contaminates. Further processing of these metal fragments will result in downstream equipment failure and the risk of ingestion by the consumer. Food manufacturers utilize industrial metal detectors to detect and reject automatically any metal fragment. Large food processors will utilize many metal detectors within the processing stream to both ensure reduced damage to processing machinery as well risk to the consumer. The first industrial level metal detector pioneered by Goring Kerr was introduced back in 1947 for Mars Incorporated.

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Fruit Processing (Mango)

Mango is a fruit which has many varieties and is grown in majority of the states of the country. Pulp or juice of ripe mangoes is consumed along with main course. Many taste enrichers are made from unripe mangoes and their shelf life is enhanced either by processing them or by using preservatives. Pickles, chutneys and many sweet preparations like murabba are made from unripe or semi-ripe mangoes. This fruit is available only during 4-5 months every year and is generally liked by every one. Mangoes are grown all over the country and Bihar and Jharkhand states have ample production of mangoes and thus mango processing can be started after assessing the market. PRODUCT Mango processing is a traditional activity and products like pickle, chutney, murabba are consumed throughout the year. Every region has its own taste or liking and a care has to be taken to understand it and accordingly the recipe has to be finalised.

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Canning of Mango Selection of fruits Washing Peeling Cutting Filling Pour hot sugar syrup Exhausting Embossing Sealing Labelling Cool the cans` Store
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Banana processing

There are many products that can be obtained from banana processing. In addition to dried banana, other important products are: canned banana slices, puree, juice, jams, jellies ands other products such as alcohol. For canned slices, banana of B2 ripeness are peeled manually, cut into 0.6 cm slices, immersed in water with sulfite for up to 30 minutes, drained, and immediately canned in sucrose or high fructose corn syrup. For better consumer acceptance, pH is controlled with citric acid or ascorbic acid to 4.5 5.0 and if the customer requires it, cinnamon is added. Banana puree is a major banana commodity used in the manufacture of baby foods confectionary, bakery products and dairy industries. Various techniques have been developed for banana puree production. There is a technology where bananas of B4 B5 ripeness are peeled to the two extreme ends, cut manually, chopped, and blended with a small amount of citric acid and ascorbic acid solution to control polyphenols oxidase activity in the vacuum deaerator. They are immediately submitted to vapor heating up to 75
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degree C, rapidly cooled and packed aseptically in sealed bags. With this technology, a high quality banana puree is obtained with minimal color changes for long shelf life when stored at 4 degree C. For juice, the ripened fruits are peeled, chopped, macerated with enzymes (alpha-amylase and pectinases) and then pasteurized and packed. Banana juice as well as jams and jellies, still has low consumer acceptance but a high possible arises for this use in baby f00ds or alcohol.

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Vegetable Processing Tomato

Introduction The demand for tomato processing usually arises from a need to preserve the product for cooking purposes (inclusion in stews, soups, curries etc) out of season or to add value for extra income. Traditionally, the most important methods used are concentration (to a paste or pure) and drying either fruit pieces or to a powder. These remain the most suitable processes for many people to use and form the bulk of this brief. It should be noted that high quality 'salad' tomatoes have the highest value when sold fresh and in good condition. These would not normally be used for processing, unless for home use to save excess at the height of the season. Raw material quality For each of the processes described below the tomatoes should be ripe, red, firm to soft, free of all mould growth (by cutting out infected parts) and free of stems, leaves, dirt and other soils (by washing). It is less important if the tomatoes have surface blemishes or splits/cracks (provided these are not infected) as in most processes they will be cut or pulped. Processing Drying Traditional methods in hot, dry regions include sun drying. The tomato halves are placed on clean flat surfaces (eg roofs) with the cut side facing up or by threading the halves on to strings and hanging in the sun from a branch
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or beam. In both cases, drying is relatively rapid (depending on the temperature and humidity of the air) but there may be contamination of the product by insects, dirt and dust, this can be reduced by covering the tomatoes with fine muslin cloth or mosquito netting. The end product is dark, red, leathery pieces with a strong tomato flavour. Re-hydration is relatively slow, but this may be unimportant in cooking applications. Provided that the humidity is low, the dried product will keep without special packaging for several months. If the humidity rises the product will go mouldy and should be protected either by suitable packaging (eg sealed plastic bags - preferably polypropylene or thick polythene, or in sealed pottery jars) or dried slowly over a fire to a low moisture content. The tomatoes should be far enough away from the fire to prevent cooking they will be fully dried when they are hard and brittle. If the climate is not hot and dry, an artificial drier could be considered but the cost of the drier and fuel should be carefully calculated to see if it is economic to dry this often low value food. When tomatoes are dried to a low moisture content, so that they are hard (eg 5% water), they can be pounded or milled to a powder. This is more convenient to use and store (eg sealed glass or pottery jars or sealed polypropylene film bags thin polypropylene - the most common type of plastic will not stop moisture entering the product and subsequent mould growth within a few weeks). Layers of pulp can also be dried to a rubbery fruit leather and stored in plastic film. Alternatively the post dried pulp can be formed into balls or cubes and then dried in the sun or over a fire.

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Concentration Tomato pulp can be prepared using a pestle and mortar, some types of mills (eg 'Posho' mill in West Africa) or by small pulping machines. It is usually necessary to remove seeds and skins this can be done by sieving through a medium mesh (eg 1-2mm holes) or, in the case of some of the pulpers, these parts are separated by the machine. Juice/squash Tomato juice can be separated from the pulp by filtering but more commonly the entire pulp is used as 'juice'. This can be preserved by hot water

pasteurising in sealed bottles at 90-100C for at least 10 minutes followed by cooling to room temperature (Figure 2) or by hot filling into sterile bottles. A certain amount of separation of pulp and liquid during storage is inevitable - with pulp accumulating at the bottom of the bottle. However, clear separation into a pale liquid and a solid pulp layer is evidence of under-pasteurisation. This is not likely to be harmful but is less attractive. Some small-scale producers have found that adding 0.3% thickener (eg sodium alginate) completely prevents separation. This is a permitted additive in most countries but may be expensive and is not really necessary.

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Flow Diagram Tomato squash is tomato pulp with added sugar syrup to give a concentration of 30-50% total solids (Brix) measured by refractometer. It is not a widespread product as people tend to prefer squashes made from other fruits but it may well be worth investigating in your own area. It is processed in a similar way to juice and may in addition contain up to 100ppm of sodium (or potassium) benzoate preservative in most countries (check with your local Bureau of Standards). Tomatoes can be boiled to evaporate the water. Depending on how much water is removed and what other ingredients are mixed into the pulp, it is possible to obtain a large number of products. Examples are given in Table

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Products from tomato pulp Usually measured by refractometer as Brix. Figures in brackets are final temperature of boiling at sea level, which is an alternative way of measuring solids content (at higher elevations the boiling point is progressively reduced and separate technical advice is needed if you are above approximately 2000m) The basic preservation principle behind all of these products is to remove water by boiling to a) heat the product to destroy enzymes and microorganisms and b) concentrate the product so that contaminating microorganisms cannot re-grow. This can be done in an open pan over a fire. It is necessary to heat slowly -especially when the product is more concentrated - to prevent it burning onto the pan. It should also be stirred continuously which is very labour intensive (and hot work). The product will be a dark red paste with a strong taste of tomato. A better colour and faster process cn be achieved using a steam jacketed boiling pan with steam from a boiler but this is expensive and should only be considered for larger scales of operation. The bright red colour of imported tomato pastes and pures can only be obtained by using vacuum

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evaporators and at present there is no low-cost small-scale equipment available to our knowledge. After boiling to the correct solids concentration (usually 65-75 Brix by refractometer or to a temperature of 104-106C at sea level) the product is filled into pre-sterilised jars (100C for ten minutes in steam or water) and cooled to room temperature. A selection of typical recipes for each product is given below.

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PEA PROCESSING

Peas are one of the vegetables where consumers are increasingly switching from fresh or canned to frozen. At the same time consumers are not prepared to compromise on taste and quality, which puts heavy demands on the processed pea manufacturers. Cabinplant can provide complete lines for the processing of green IQF peas for capacities between 2 and 30 t/h. Our experience includes solutions for all steps of the processing of podded raw material:

Reception of podded peas Removal of light foreign matters, such as pods, leaves, etc. Washing to remove sand, stones, stems, etc. Draining and cleaning of washing water and removal of incomplete peas

Accumulation to control infeed to blancher Integrated blanching and cooling to maintain taste, colour and nutrients

Scanning to remove peas with spots as well as other foreign matters

Freezing
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Grading in different sizes Weighing, filling and packing into e.g. bags

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FISH PROCESSING

The term fish processing refers to the processes associated with fish and fish products between the time fish are caught or harvested, and the time the final product is delivered to the customer. Although the term refers specifically to fish, in practice it is extended to cover any aquatic organisms harvested for commercial purposes, whether caught in wild fisheries or harvested fromaquaculture or fish farming. Larger fish processing companies often operate their own fishing fleets or farming operations. The products of the fish industry are usually sold to grocery chains or to intermediaries. Fish are highly perishable. A central concern of fish processing is to prevent fish from deteriorating, and this remains an underlying concern during other processing operations. Fish processing can be subdivided into fish handling, which is the preliminary processing of raw fish, and the manufacture of fish products. Another natural subdivision is into primary processing involved in the filleting and freezing of fresh fish for onward distribution to fresh fish retail and catering outlets, and the secondary processing that produces chilled, frozen and canned products for the retail and catering trades.

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There is evidence humans have been processing fish since the early Holocene. These days, fish processing is undertaken by artisan fishermen, on board fishing or fish processing vessels, and at fish processing plants. A more recent development is pumpable ice technology. Pumpable ice flows like water, and because it is homogeneous, it cools fish faster than fresh water solid ice methods and eliminates freeze burns. It complies with HACCP and ISO food safety and public health standards, and uses less energy than conventional fresh water solid ice technologies.

Fish packed in ice

Fish chilling with slurry ice.

Fish cooling by pumpable ice

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Loading blocks of factory-made ice from a truck to an "ice depot" boat

Ice manufactured in this ice house is delivered down the Archimedes screw into the ice hold on the boat, Pittenweem

Automated processes "The search for higher productivity and the increase of labor cost has driven the development of computer vision technology, electronic scales and automatic skinning and filleting machines."

Automatic knives for filleting fish

Patent issued to Clarence Birdseye for the production of quick-frozen fish, 1930

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Processing line for fish fingers

Fish feed production in Norway

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Meat Processing

The William Davies Company facilities in Toronto, Canada, circa 1920. This facility was then the second largest pork-packing plant in North America.

The meat packing industry handles the slaughtering, processing, packaging, and distributionof animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock. The industry is primarily focused on producing meat for human consumption, but it also yields a variety of by-products includinghides, feathers, dried blood, and, through the process of rendering, fat such as tallow and proteinmeals such as meat & bone meal. In the U.S. and some other countries, the facility where the meat packing is done is called ameat packing plant; in New Zealand, where most of the products are exported, it is called afreezing works. An abattoir is a place where animals are slaughtered for food.

Pork packing in Cincinnati, 1873

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The meat packing industry grew with the construction of the railroads and methods of refrigeration. Railroads made possible the transport of stock to central points for processing, and the transport of products throughout the nation. The publication of the Upton Sinclair novel The Jungle in the US in 1906, shocked the public with the poor working conditions and unsanitary practices in meat packing plants in the United States, specifically Chicago. Meat packing plants, like many industries in the early 20th century, were known to overwork their employees, failed to maintain adequate safety measures, and actively fought unionization. In the early part of the century, they used the most recent immigrants and migrants as strikebreakers in labor actions taken by other workers, also usually immigrants or early descendants. In the 1920s and early 1930s, however, workers achieved unionization under the CIO's United Packinghouse Workers of America (UPWA). An interracial committee led the organizing inChicago, where the majority of workers in the industry were black, and other major cities, such as Omaha, Nebraska, where they were an important minority in the industry. UPWA workers made important gains in wages, hours and benefits. In 1957 the stockyards and meat packing employed half the workers of Omaha. The union supported a progressive agenda, including the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. While the work was still difficult, for a few decades workers achieved blue-collar, middle-class lives from it. Mid-century restructuring by the industry of the stockyards,

slaughterhouses and meat packing led to relocating facilities closer to cattle feedlots and swine production facilities, to more rural areas, as transportation
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shifted from rail to truck. It has been difficult for labor to organize in such locations. In addition, the number of jobs fell sharply through technology and other changes. Wages fell during the latter part of the 20th century, and eventually, both Chicago (in 1971) and Omaha (in 1999) closed their stockyards for good. Historically, the other major meat packing cities in the United States were South St. Paul, Minnesota, East St. Louis,

Illinois, Dubuque, Iowa, Kansas City, Missouri, Austin, Minnesota, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, and Sioux City, Iowa. Though the meat packing industry has made many improvements since the early 1900s, extensive changes in the industry since the late 20th century have caused new labor issues to arise. Today, the rate of injury in the meat packing industry is three times that of private industry overall, and meat packing was noted by Human Rights Watch as being "the most dangerous factory job in America". The meatpacking industry continues to employ many immigrant laborers, including some who are undocumented workers. In the early 20th century the workers were immigrants from eastern and southern Europe, and black migrants from the South. Today many are Hispanic, from Mexico, Central and South America. A vast majority today is also made up a large Peruvian community. The more isolated areas in which the plants are located put workers at greater risk due to their limited ability to organize and to seek redress for work-related injuries.

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SUMMARY

Processed foods have been altered from their natural state, either for safety reasons or for convenience. The methods used include canning, freezing, refrigeration, dehydration and aseptic processing. We tend to think of them as bad, like most high-fat, high-calorie snack foods or even those meals you fix in a skillet, but it turns out that some of these foods are not bad for your health at all. For example, milk would be considered a processed food because it's pasteurized to kill bacteria and homogenized to keep fats from separating. Some people prefer raw milk, but it can lead to lead to food-borne illness, so most of us are happy to consume the healthy processed milk we find in our grocery stores. Freezing vegetables preserves vitamins and minerals and makes them convenient to store, cook and eat all year around. Fruit and vegetable juice is also an example of a healthy processed food -- usually. In fact, some orange juice is fortified with calcium to make it even more nutritious. Oatmeal, unbreaded frozen fish fillets, canned salmon, frozen berries and 100-percent whole-grain bread are also examples of processed foods that are good for you. Sure, there are a lot of processed foods that aren't good for you. Many of these bad ones are made with trans-fats, saturated fats, and large amounts of sodium and sugar. These processed foods should be avoided, or at least eaten sparingly.

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Processed foods that may be bad for your diet:

o o

Canned foods with large amounts of sodium or fat. Breads and pastas made with refined white flour instead of whole grains.

o o o o o o

Packaged high-calorie snack foods such as chips and candies. Frozen fish sticks and frozen dinners that are high in sodium. Packaged cakes and cookies. Boxed meal mixes that are high in fat and sodium. Sugary breakfast cereals. Processed meats.

Why processed meats? Some studies suggest that eating processed meats may increase your risk of colorectal, kidney and stomach cancer. Processed meats include hot dogs, bologna, sausage, ham and other packaged lunch meats. These meats are frequently high in calories, saturated fats and sodium. Breakfast cereal can be good for you if it's made with 100-percent whole grain and fortified with additional nutrients, but many breakfast cereals are low in fiber and contain too much sugar. Read the nutrition label on the package, it will help you decide if the breakfast cereal is good or not. Be sure to look for products that are made with more whole grains, less sodium and have fewer calories. They should also be low in saturated fat and free of trans-fats. Make sure you pay attention to serving size, too, and balance out the processed foods with more fresh foods. If you choose a convenient meal in a skillet, add a garden salad, fresh vegetables, and some whole grain bread to make the meal healthier.

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REFERENCES

FDA 21CFR113.3 Thermally processed low acid foods packaged in hermetically sealed containers Revision Apr.2006

N.N. Potter, J.H. Hotchkiss. Food Science. 5th ed. Springer, 1999 P.J. Fellows. Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice, 2nd Edition . Woodhead Pub. 1999

^ Levenstein, H: "Paradox of Plenty", pages 106-107. University of California Press, 2003

^ Laudan, Rachel (September/October 2010). "In Praise of Fast Food". UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24. "Where modern food became available, people grew taller and stronger and lived longer."

^ Laudan, Rachel (September/October 2010). "In Praise of Fast Food". UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24. "If we fail to understand how scant and monotonous most traditional diets were, we can misunderstand the ethnic foods we encounter in cookbooks, at restaurants, or on our travels."

^ Laudan, Rachel (September/October 2010). "In Praise of Fast Food". UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24. "For our ancestors, natural was something quite nasty. Natural often tasted bad. Fresh meat was rank and tough, fresh fruits inedibly sour, fresh vegetables bitter."

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