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UNIVERSITY GHENT

UNIVERSITEIT GENT

INTERUNIVERSITY PROGRAMME MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICAL LAND RESOURCES


Universiteit Gent Vrije Universiteit Brussel Belgium

Groundwater Surface Water Interaction Modelling Using Visual MODFLOW and GIS

June 2008

Promotor: Prof. F. De Smedt

Master dissertation in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Physical Land Resources by: Jemaneh Shibru Wake

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my brother Y.S. Wake who has had the biggest influence in my life in being with me throughout my study in Belgium and to support my interest throughout my stay. I would like to thank my promoter prof. F. De Smedt for his important suggestions. I am equally grateful to doctoral students, A. Christian and G. Adem for their support, guidance, suggestions and data provision. I like to thank all my class mates and staff members of PHYLARES at Ghent University and the department of Hydrology and Hydraulic engineering of the Free University of Brussels for their support and services.

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II

Abstract
Understanding interconnections among the components of the hydrologic cycle is fundamental to development of effective water resources management and policy. The need to assess the effects of variability in geology, climate, biota and human activities on water availability and flow requires the development of models that couple two or more components of the hydrologic cycle. Groundwater and surface water resources are by no means disjoint, as knowing where surface water recharges groundwater and where groundwater flows supply surface water is an important aspect of the hydrologic cycle. As global concerns over water resources and the environment increase, the importance of considering groundwater and surface water as a single resource has become increasingly evident.

Ground water and surface water are hydraulically interconnected, but the interactions are difficult to observe and measure. In many situations, surface-water bodies gain water and solutes from ground-water systems and in others the surface-water body is a source of ground-water recharge and causes changes in ground-water quality. As a result, withdrawal of water from streams can deplete ground water or conversely, pumpage of ground water can deplete water in streams, lakes, or wetlands. Pollution of surface water can cause degradation of ground-water quality and conversely pollution of ground water can degrade surface water. Thus, effective land and water management requires a clear understanding of the linkages between ground water and surface water as it applies to any given hydrologic setting.

At some reaches water moves from the land surface to the subsurface and in other areas it moves from the subsurface to the land. Lakes and wetlands can receive groundwater inflow throughout their entire bed, have outflow throughout their entire bed, or have both inflow and outflow at different localities. In this thesis, surface water and groundwater interaction model was developed for a study area located in the Nete Catchment, Belgium.

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III

Table of contents
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................ I Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... II Table of contents ......................................................................................................................... III List of figures ................................................................................................................................ V List of tables................................................................................................................................. VI Chapter 1:Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 General Overview ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Objective ..................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Structure of the thesis.................................................................................................. 3 Chapter 2:Approach and Methodology ...................................................................................... 4 2.1 General overview of Models ....................................................................................... 4 2.2 Groundwater models ................................................................................................... 5 2.3 Model Development.................................................................................................... 7 2.3.1 Model Objectives ................................................................................................... 7 2.3.2 Hydrogeological Characterization ......................................................................... 7 2.3.3 Model Conceptualization ....................................................................................... 7 2.3.4 Model Design ......................................................................................................... 7 2.3.5 Model Calibration .................................................................................................. 8 2.3.6 Sensitivity Analysis ............................................................................................... 8 2.3.7 Model Verification ................................................................................................. 8 2.3.8 Predictive Simulations ........................................................................................... 8 2.3.9 Performance monitoring Plan ................................................................................ 9 2.4 Methodology ............................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 3:Interaction of groundwater and surface water...................................................... 10 3.1 General overview ...................................................................................................... 10 3.2 Interaction of groundwater and stream ..................................................................... 12 3.3. Interaction of Groundwater and Lakes ..................................................................... 17 3.4 Interaction of Groundwater and Wetlands ................................................................ 17 3.5 Groundwater and Coastal Environments ................................................................. 18 3.6. Human activity and interaction of groundwater and surface water .......................... 18 Chapter 4:Description of the study area ................................................................................... 19 4.1 Geographical location ............................................................................................... 19 4.2 Study boundaries and previous work ....................................................................... 20 4.3 Topography .............................................................................................................. 22 4.4 Hydrological setting ................................................................................................. 24 4.5 Recharge .................................................................................................................. 25 4.6 Land-use and Soil .................................................................................................... 25 4.7 Climate of the study area ......................................................................................... 25 Chapter 5:Modeling tools ........................................................................................................... 27 5.1 ArcView GIS ............................................................................................................ 27 5.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 27 5.1.2 Types of data used in ArcView GIS ..................................................................... 27 5.1.3 Geographical data ................................................................................................. 27 5.1.4 Spatial data ............................................................................................................ 28
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IV

5.1.5 Image data ............................................................................................................. 28 5.1.6 Tabular data .......................................................................................................... 28 5.1.7. Extensions of GIS ................................................................................................. 28 5.2 Visual MODFLOW .................................................................................................. 29 5.3. Surfer 8...................................................................................................................... 30 5.4 Grapher 7 .................................................................................................................. 30 Chapter 6:Model Setup .............................................................................................................. 31 6.1 Description of the Groundwater Flow Model ........................................................... 31 6.1.1 Model dimensions ................................................................................................ 32 6.1.2 Layers ................................................................................................................... 33 6.1.3 Elevation limits .................................................................................................... 34 6.1.4 Grid ...................................................................................................................... 34 6.1.5 Elevation data....................................................................................................... 34 6.1.6 Hydrogeological information ............................................................................... 36 6.1.7 Aquifer characteristics data.................................................................................. 38 6.1.8. Hydraulic conductivity......................................................................................... 41 6.1.9 River..................................................................................................................... 41 6.2 Input to the model ..................................................................................................... 42 6.2.1 Recharge ............................................................................................................... 42 6.2.2 River...................................................................................................................... 43 6.2.3 Constant Head boundary ....................................................................................... 44 6.3 Output from the model .............................................................................................. 44 Chapter 7:Model calibration ..................................................................................................... 46 7.1 Calibration water levels ........................................................................................... 47 7.2 Calibrated Aquifer Parameters ................................................................................. 49 7.2.1 Hydraulic conductivity.......................................................................................... 49 7.2.2 Water levels .......................................................................................................... 49 Chapter 8:Results and discussion .............................................................................................. 52 8.1 Output from the model .............................................................................................. 52 8.1.1 Model Water balance ............................................................................................ 52 8.1.2. Zonebudget ........................................................................................................... 55 8.3 Groundwater head ..................................................................................................... 56 8.3 Groundwater - Surface Water Interactions ............................................................... 58 Chapter 9:Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................................................... 63 9.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 63 9.2. Recommendations and future considerations ........................................................... 64 References .................................................................................................................................... 65 Annex ........................................................................................................................................... 68

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List of figures
Figure 3.1 Figure 3. 2 Figure 3. 3 Figure 3. 4 Figure 4. 1 Figure 4. 2 Figure 4. 3 Figure 4. 4 Figure 4. 5 Figure 6. 1 Figure 6. 2 Figure 6. 3 Figure 6. 4 Figure 6. 5 Figure 6. 6 Figure 6. 7 Figure 6. 8 Figure 6. 9 Figure 6. 10 Figure 6. 11 Figure 6. 12 Figure 7. 1 Figure 7. 2 Figure 7. 3 Figure 8. 1 Figure8. 2 Figure 8. 2 Figure 8. 3 Figure 8. 4 Figure 8. 5 Figure 8. 6 Figure 8. 7 Figure 8. 8 Figure 8. 9 Figure 8. 10 Flow through a Hypothetical aquifer system ........................................................ 11 Interaction of streams and ground water. .............................................................. 13 Effects of pumping from a hypothetical aquifer discharging to a stream ............ 15 The dynamic interface between ground water and streams. ................................. 16 Geographical Location of Belgium ...................................................................... 19 The study area and its location in the Nete Basin. ................................................ 21 Two dimensional view and elevation of the study area. .................................... 22 3D of Topography ................................................................................................. 24 Slope map of the study area .................................................................................. 24 Model domain and units of measurement. ............................................................ 33 Bottom elevation for layer 1 ................................................................................. 35 Bottom elevation of layer 2................................................................................... 35 Bottom elevation of layer 3................................................................................... 36 Stratigraphy of the different aquifer units of the model. ...................................... 38 Geologic cross section along the middle points of the model. .......................... 39 Geologic cross section along the river flow route ............................................. 40 Two- dimensional view of the river segment in the model domain. .................... 41 Spatially distributed recharge ............................................................................... 42 Reclassified recharge zones and their values ....................................................... 43 Head values of layer 1 used for constant head boundary. .................................... 44 Location of the pumping wells ............................................................................. 45 Location of observation wells ............................................................................... 48 simulated versus field measured water levels ....................................................... 50 Scattergram for the measured versus simulated values ........................................ 51 The Volumetric water balance of the model. ........................................................ 53 Volumetric water balance of the model in percentage of components. ................ 54 Zone 2 water balance ............................................................................................ 55 Ground water heads and flow directions in Layer 1 ............................................. 56 Equipotential head distribution of layer 2 ............................................................. 57 Equipotential head for layer 3 ............................................................................... 58 Cross section along column 328, groundwater flows to the river......................... 59 Cross- section along row 185. Groundwater flows away from the river .............. 60 Position of the river water level and the groundwater level ................................ 61 North- South water table cross section along column 222. .................................. 62 General flow direction of groundwater within the model domain ........................ 62

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VI

List of tables
Table 6. 1 Table 6. 2 Table 6. 3 Table 6. 4 Table 6. 5 Table 6. 6 Table 7. 1 Table 7. 2 Table 8.1 Geographic extent of the model. ........................................................................... 32 Model Configuration............................................................................................. 33 Main units of the HCOV hydrogeological code .................................................. 37 Overview of aquifers on the HCOV classification for Flanders ........................... 37 The ground-water model recharge and the annual recharge rate per zone. .......... 43 Location and pumping rate of the wells in the model domain. ............................. 45 Water level and location of piezometers. .............................................................. 47 Calibrated Hydraulic conductivity values for the three layers.............................. 49 Input and output of the model in terms of volume................................................ 53

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Introduction / ch.1

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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 General Overview

Water covers two-thirds of the Earths surface and surrounds the planet in vapor form. Chemical and density stratification during and immediately following accretionary heating of the Earths primordial planetary body resulted in its present layered configuration. Internal heat and chemical reactions caused water, which was originally bound as oxygen and hydroxide in minerals, to diffuse from the Earths interior towards its surface. This degassing (still an ongoing process) of both water and other volatile species resulted in the accumulation and eventual condensation of the fluid envelope of the Earth. Of course, water was also delivered to our planet by infalling comets and other H2O bearing planetesimals. The hydrologic cycle describes the complex system whereby water circulates among its various reservoirs at and near the surface of the Earth. These reservoirs include the oceans, the atmosphere, underground water (including both soil water and groundwater), surface water (lakes, rivers and wetlands), glaciers and the polar ice caps. The Hydrologic cycle is directly coupled to the Earths energy cycle, because solar radiation combines with gravity to drive the global circulation of water. This circulation, in turn, plays an important role in the heat balance of the Earths surface. The hydrologic cycle is also closely linked to the geosphere and its rock cycle. Water erodes geologic materials, and the breakdown of these materials releases many chemical constituents that in turn define the chemical nature of the water. Water can also build geologic formations, through both chemical and mechanical depositional processes. Water is essential to all life forms in the planetary biosphere. (Mauricie, et.al, 2001).

Only a small portion (3 %) of the water covering the earths surface is fresh. Of the fresh water 77.5% is locked in ice fields and glaciers. Surface water and underground water are the utilizable

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Introduction / ch.1

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fresh water resources of which groundwater water accounts for 95%; lakes, reservoirs, swamps and river channels 3.5%; and soil moisture comprises 1.5% (Freeze & Cherry, 1979).

Understanding interconnections among the components of the hydrologic cycle is fundamental to development of effective water resources management and policy. Ground water and surface water are hydraulically interconnected, but the interactions are difficult to observe and measure. In many situations, surface-water bodies gain water and solutes from ground-water systems and in others the surface-water body is a source of ground-water recharge and causes changes in ground-water quality. As a result, withdrawal of water from streams can deplete ground water or conversely, pumpage of ground water can deplete water in streams, lakes, or wetlands. Pollution of surface water can cause degradation of ground-water quality and conversely pollution of ground water can degrade surface water. Thus, effective land and water management requires a clear understanding of the linkages between ground water and surface water as it applies to any given hydrologic setting.

In this work Visual MODFLOW 3.0 groundwater modeling package is utilized to quantify groundwater surface water interaction. Visual MODFLOW 3.0 package is an integrated modeling environment for applications in three dimensional groundwater flow and contaminant transport simulations based on the finite-difference method.

ArcView GIS has been used to store analyze and display the spatial data on topography, recharge, and in making the base map for the visual MODFLOW. Thus visual MODFLOW and ArcView GIS have been used to simulate the ground water flow and consequently the flux between the ground water and surface water.

1.2

Objective

The main objectives of this thesis work are to: Develop a steady state model and calculate the water balance of the area Quantify the flux exchange between the ground water and the river in the study area ( groundwater surface water interaction) Identify the loosing and gaining sections of the river

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Introduction / ch.1

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Specific objectives of this thesis are: Calibration and validation of the model Development of a model to simulate groundwater flow in the study area and interpret the flow system using the developed model.

1.3

Structure of the thesis

This thesis is organized into three major parts: literature review, methodology and discussion of the results and conclusion & recommendations. Chapter 1 is the introductory part which deals mainly with the importance of the topic and the associated research questions. Chapters 2 and 3 deal with literature review on past and existing knowledge about the topic of groundwatersurface water interaction and its importance in the study of hydrologic systems. Chapter 4 focuses on the detailed description of the study area and available data for the modeling work. Chapter 5 8 discuss the modeling tools, procedure, calibration of the model and the results obtained. Conclusion and recommendation is presented in Chapter 9 on the ideas and issues for further work in the focus area.

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Approach and methodology / ch.2

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Chapter 2
Approach and Methodology

2.1

General overview of Models

Models are a substitute for a real system. Models are used when it is easier to work with a substitute than with the actual system. Domenico (1972) defined a model as a representation of reality that attempts to explain the behavior of some aspect of it and is always less complex than the system it represents. Wang & Anderson (1982) defined a model as a tool designed to represent a simplified version of reality. Banks (1993) defines two types of models (1) consolidative: Consolidates facts regarding the system into a single model used as a surrogate to the real system and (2) exploratory: a series of computational experiments to explore cause and effect. Bredehoft et.al. Further subdivided ground water models into (1) Data driven exploratory models or history matching (2) policy question driven models and (3) conceptually driven models.

In studying a groundwater flow model we first develop a conceptual model descriptive of the present condition of a system. At this stage we identify relevant processes and physical elements controlling groundwater flow in the aquifer, namely: the Geologic framework, the Hydrologic framework, the Hydraulic properties, and the Sources & sinks (water budget) and determine data deficiencies. Conceptual model dictates how we translate the real world to a mathematical Model.

To make predictions of future behavior, a dynamic model is needed that is capable of manipulation. Mathematical models are one type of dynamic models and use equations to

represent the interconnections in a system. The simplest mathematical model of groundwater flow is Darcys law. To apply Darcys law we need to have a conceptual model of the aquifer and to develop data on the physical properties of the aquifer system, the potential field and the fluid properties. The process of formulating and solving a mathematical model is referred to as mathematical modeling. The methods of obtaining the solution to a mathematical model can be

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Approach and methodology / ch.2

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broadly divided into two classes, analytical and numerical, even though the hybrid of these two classes is not uncommon. Analytical methods yield exact solutions to the governing differential equations. Darcys law is an example of an analytical model. To solve an analytical model, one must know the initial and boundary conditions of the flow problem. These conditions must be simple enough that the flow equation can be solved directly by using calculus.

Numerical methods approximate the differential equations with a set of algebraic equations. These recast equations are numerical approximations and the answers obtained are also approximations. The equations are most commonly in matrix form and they are solved on a digital computer, unlike analytical models which can be solved rapidly, accurately and inexpensively with a programmable calculator or a spread sheet on a personal computer.

Generally, analytical solutions can be obtained under many simplifying assumptions, such as a unidirectional velocity field, a set of uniform transport properties, a simple flow domain geometry, and a simple pattern of sink and source distribution. For this reasons, numerical solutions which are capable of approximating more general conditions, are more widely used in field applications (Zheng & Bennett, 2002). This thesis is a numerical model to approximate steady state water balance and interaction of surface and groundwater.

2.2

Groundwater models

Groundwater models are computer programs of groundwater flow systems for the calculation of groundwater flux and head. Because of the simplifying assumptions embedded in the mathematical equations and the many uncertainties in the values of data required by the model, a model must be viewed as an approximation and not an exact duplication of field conditions. Groundwater models, however, even as approximations are a useful investigation tool. For the calculations one needs (hydrological) inputs, (hydraulic) parameters, initial and boundary conditions.The input is usually the inflow into the aquifer or the recharge, which varies temporally and spatially. Important parameters are the topography, thicknesses of soil and aquifer layers and their horizontal and vertical hydraulic condustivity, porosity and storage coefficient, capillarity of the
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Approach and methodology / ch.2

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unsaturated zone.Initial conditions and boundary conditions can be related to levels, pressures, and hydraulic heads on the one hand (head conditions), or to recharge, discharge, inflow and outflow on the other hand (flow conditions). In general, groundwater models are conceptual descriptions or approximations that describe the given flow system using mathematical equations; they are an approximate descriptions of the physical system or process. By mathematically representing a simplified version of a hydrogeological system, reasonable alternative scenarios can be predicted, tested, and compared. The applicability or usefulness of a model depends on how closely the mathematical equations approximate the physical system being modeled (model calibration). Application of existing groundwater models include water balance (in terms of water quantity), assessing the impact of changes of the groundwater regime on the environment, setting up/optimizing monitoring networks, setting up groundwater protection zones and understanding the quantitative aspects of the unsaturated zone, simulating water flow and chemical migration in the saturated zone including groundwater Surface water interactions. Groundwater modeling begins with a conceptual understanding of the physical problem. The next step in modeling is translating the physical system into mathematical terms. Most models solve the general form of the three-dimensional groundwater flow equation which is a combination of the water balance equation and Darcys law: h h h h Kx + Ky + Kz W = Ss z x x y y t z Where, Kx, Ky, Kz are hydraulic conductivity values along the x, y, z axes [LT-1] h = hydraulic head [L] W = source/sink terms [T-1] Ss = specific storage coefficient [L-1] t is time [T].
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Approach and methodology / ch.2

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2.3

Model Development

A groundwater model application can be considered to be two distinct processes. The first process is model development resulting in a software product, and the second process is application of that product for a specific purpose.
2.3.1 Model Objectives

Model objectives should be defined which explain the purpose of using a groundwater model. The modeling objectives will profoundly impact the modeling effort required.
2.3.2 Hydrogeological Characterization

Proper characterization of the hydrogeological conditions at a site is necessary in order to understand the importance of relevant flow or solute transport processes. Without proper site characterization, it is not possible to select an appropriate model or develop a reliably calibrated model.
2.3.3 Model Conceptualization

Model conceptualization is the process in which data describing field conditions are assembled in a systematic way to describe groundwater flow and contaminant transport processes at a site. The model conceptualization aids in determining the modeling approach and which model software to use.
2.3.4 Model Design

To successfully transform a conceptual model into a mathematical model, it is necessary to have a database that provides adequate information to apply the requisite equations. All models start with a groundwater flow model. For this, one needs to know the physical configuration of the aquifer. This includes the location, areal extent, and thickness of all the aquifers and confining layers; the location of the surface water bodies and streams; and the boundary conditions of all aquifers.

Important hydraulic properties include the variation of transmissivity or permeability and storage coefficient of the aquifers, the variations of permeability and specific storage of the confining
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Approach and methodology / ch.2

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layers, and the hydraulic connection between the aquifer and surface- water bodies. Hydraulic energy as indicated by the water table or potentiometric surface maps and the amounts of natural aquifer recharge and natural stream flow are also needed. (Fetter, 2001).To model stresses on the natural ground-water flow system, the modeler must know the locations, types, and amounts, through time, of any artificial recharge, such as results from recharge basins and wells or return flow from irrigation, as well as the amounts and locations through time of ground-water withdrawals from wells. Changes in the amounts of water flowing in the streams and changes in the water levels of surface-water bodies should also be known.
2.3.5 Model Calibration

Model calibration consists of changing values of model input parameters in an attempt to match field conditions within some acceptable criteria. Model calibration requires that field conditions at a site be properly characterized. Lack of proper site characterization may result in a model calibrated to a set of conditions that are not representative of actual field conditions.
2.3.6 Sensitivity Analysis

A sensitivity analysis is the process of varying model input parameters over a reasonable range (range of uncertainty in value of model parameter) and observing the relative change in model response. Typically, the observed change in hydraulic head, flow rate or contaminant transport are noted. Data for which the model is relatively sensitive would require future characterization, as opposed to data for which the model is relatively insensitive.
2.3.7 Model Verification

A calibrated model uses selected values of hydrogeologic parameters, sources and sinks and boundary conditions to match historical field conditions. The process of model verification may result in further calibration or refinement of the model. After the model has successfully reproduced measured changes in field conditions, it is ready for predictive simulations.
2.3.8 Predictive Simulations

A model may be used to predict some future groundwater flow or contaminant transport condition. The model may also be used to evaluate different remediation alternatives. However,
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Approach and methodology / ch.2

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errors and uncertainties in a groundwater flow analysis and solute transport analysis make any model prediction no better than an approximation. For this reason, all model predictions should be expressed as a range of possible outcomes that reflect the assumptions involved and uncertainty in model input data and parameter values.
2.3.9 Performance monitoring Plan

Groundwater models can be used to predict the migration pathway and concentrations of contaminants in groundwater. Errors in the predictive model, even though small, can result in gross errors in solutions projected forwarded in time. Performance monitoring is required to compare future field conditions with model predictions.

2.4

Methodology

The model construction is done by using the Visual MODFLOW 3.0 interface. To construct the model, the study area was divided up into finite difference cells, which have a constant size of 5 meter by 5 meter. In the vertical dimension, 3 groundwater layers were represented. Parameters representing physical characteristics and flow conditions were attributed to each cell. Visual MODFLOW stores all of the data in a set of files. Most of the input files are stored in ASCII text format. As a result, the input files can be manipulated using a text editor or even generated using a FORTRAN or Visual Basic program. Visual MODFLOW then translates these data files to the required format prior to running the models. By constructing the model, Visual MODFLOW creates the modules, basic pieces of the program code, needed by the numeric engine.

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Interaction of Groundwater and Surface water / ch.3

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Chapter 3
Interaction of Groundwater and Surface water
3.1 General overview

Each component of the hydrologic system is in continuing interaction with other components. Groundwater and surface water interact throughout all landscapes. As global concerns over water resources and the environment increase, the importance of considering groundwater and surface water as a single resource has become increasingly evident and the interactions of ground water and surface water have been shown to be a significant concern in water supply, water quality, and degradation of aquatic environments. (USGS, circular 1139).

At some reaches water moves from the land surface to the subsurface and in other areas it moves from the subsurface to the land. Lakes and wetlands can receive groundwater inflow throughout their entire bed, have outflow throughout their entire bed, or have both inflow and outflow at different localities.

In order to fully understand the interaction between surface and ground-water flows, a detailed description of the budgets of all hydrologic components is necessary. Ground water is a major contributor to flow in many streams and rivers and has a strong influence on river and wetland habitats for plants and animals.

The groundwater system as a whole is a three dimensional flow field; therefore, it is important to understand how the vertical components of groundwater movement affect the interaction of groundwater and surface water. A vertical component of a flow field indicates how the potential energy is distributed beneath the water table in the groundwater system and how the energy distribution can be used to determine vertical components of flow near a surface water body. The

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Interaction of Groundwater and Surface water / ch.3

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potential energy is also described as the hydraulic head which is the sum of elevation and water pressure divided by the weight density of water.

The geology of an area governs movement and availability of surface and ground waters. The permeability of geologic materials and the intensity of precipitation determine the water flows above and below the land surface. Each geologic material exhibits its own permeability based upon its chemical and structural composition.

Much groundwater discharge into surface water is from local flow systems. Local flow systems are the most dynamic and the shallowest flow systems; therefore, they have the greatest interchange with surface water. Local flow system can be underlain by intermediate and regional flow systems. Water in deeper flow systems have longer flow paths, but eventually discharge to surface water and they can have a great effect on the chemistry of the receiving water.

After rainfall events, materials with low permeability will cause water to pond whenever the water input (recharge) exceeds the capacity of the materials to hold the water. Ponding of water will then cause water movement across the land surface and/or into the subsurface. Surface movement of water will follow elevation differences on the land surface, thus water will eventually spill into lakes, streams, rivers, etc. (Figure 3.1)

Figure 3.1

Flow through a Hypothetical aquifer system (GSFLOW model based on integration of PRMS and MODFLOW 2005, Steven.L et.al USGS Techniques and methods 6-D1, 2008)

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Interaction of Groundwater and Surface water / ch.3

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3.2

Interaction of groundwater and stream

The interaction between groundwater and streams takes place in three basic ways: streams gain water from inflow of groundwater through the streambed (gaining stream), they lose water to groundwater (losing stream) or they do both, gaining in some reaches and losing in other reaches

Woesner (2000) classified four types of interactions between a stream and groundwater: (1) gaining, where the groundwater flows into the stream; (2) losing, where the water in the stream drains into the aquifer; (3) flow through, where the groundwater flows into the stream on one side of the channel and out of the stream on the other side of the channel; and (4) parallel, where the groundwater flows in the aquifer beneath the stream and in the same direction as the stream without entering or leaving the stream. (Fetter, 2001) Generally, Streams either gain water from inflow of ground water (gaining stream; Figure 3.2 A) or lose water by outflow to ground water (losing stream; Figure 3.2 B). Many streams do both, gaining in some reaches and losing in other reaches. Furthermore, the flow directions between ground water and surface water can change seasonally as the altitude of the ground-water table changes with respect to the stream-surface altitude or can change over shorter timeframes when rises in stream surfaces during storms cause recharge to the stream bank. Under natural conditions, ground water makes some contribution to stream flow in most physiographic and climatic settings. Thus, even in settings where streams are primarily losing water to ground water, certain reaches may receive ground-water inflow during some seasons. Losing streams can be connected to the ground-water system by a continuous saturated zone (Figure 3.2 A, B) or can be disconnected from the ground-water system by an unsaturated zone (Figure 3.2C). An important feature of streams that are disconnected from ground water is that pumping of ground water near the stream does not affect the flow of the stream near the pumped well.

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Interaction of Groundwater and Surface water / ch.3

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Figure 3. 2

Interaction of streams and ground water. (Winter et.al, 1998.)

In Figure 3.2, (A) represents gaining streams that receive water from the ground-water system, whereas losing streams (B) lose water to the ground-water system. For ground water to discharge to a stream channel, the altitude of the ground water table in the vicinity of the stream must be higher than the altitude of the stream-water surface. Conversely, for surface water to seep to ground water, the altitude of the water table in the vicinity of the stream must be lower than the altitude of the stream surface. Some losing streams (C) are separated from the saturated groundwater system by an unsaturated zone.

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Interaction of Groundwater and Surface water / ch.3

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A pumping well can change the quantity and direction of flow between an aquifer and stream in response to different rates of pumping. Figure 4 illustrates a simple case in which equilibrium is attained for a hypothetical stream-aquifer system and a single pumping well. The adjustments to pumping of an actual hydrologic system may take place over many years, depending upon the physical characteristics of the aquifer, degree of hydraulic connection between the stream and aquifer, and locations and pumping history of wells. Reductions of stream flow as a result of ground-water pumping are likely to be of greatest concern during periods of low flow, particularly when the reliability of surface-water supplies is threatened during droughts. At the start of pumping, 100 percent of the water supplied to a well comes from ground-water storage. Over time, the dominant source of water to a well, particularly wells that are completed in an unconfined aquifer, commonly changes from ground-water storage to surface water. The surface-water source for purposes of discussion here is a river, but it may be another surfacewater body such as a lake or wetland. The source of water to a well from a stream can be either decreased discharge to the stream or increased recharge from the stream to the ground-water system. The streamflow reduction in either case is referred to as streamflow capture. In the long term, the cumulative stream- flow capture for many ground-water systems can approach the quantity of water pumped from the ground-water system. This is illustrated in Figure 14, which shows the time-varying percentage of ground-water pumpage derived from ground-water storage and the percentage derived from streamflow capture for the hypothetical stream-aquifer system shown in Figure 13. The time for the change from the dominance of withdrawal from ground-water storage to the dominance of streamflow capture can range from weeks to years to decades or longer.

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Figure 3. 3

Effects of pumping from a hypothetical aquifer discharging to a stream (Heath, 1983, cited by USGS, Circular 1186)

Under natural conditions Figure 3.3A, recharge at the water table is equal to ground-water discharge to the stream. Assume a well is installed and is pumped continuously at a rate, Q1, as in Figure 3.3B. After a new state of dynamic equilibrium is achieved, inflow to the ground-water system from recharge will equal outflow to the stream plus the withdrawal from the well. In this new equilibrium, some of the ground water that would have discharged to the stream is intercepted by the well, and a ground-water divide, which is a line separating directions of flow, is established locally between the well and the stream. If the well is pumped at a higher rate, Q2, a different equilibrium is reached, as shown in Figure 3.3C. Under this condition, the groundwater divide between the well and the stream is no longer present, and withdrawals from the well
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induce movement of water from the stream into the aquifer. Thus, pumping reverses the hydrologic condition of the stream in this reach from ground-water discharge to ground-water recharge. In the hydrologic system depicted in Figure 3.3 (A) and (B), the quality of the stream water generally will have little effect on the quality of ground water. In the case of the well pumping at the higher rate in Figure 3.3 (C), however, the quality of the stream water can affect the quality of ground water between the well and the stream, as well as the quality of the water withdrawn from the well. Although a stream is used in this example, the general concepts apply to all surface-water bodies, including lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, and estuaries. In gaining and in losing streams, water and dissolved chemicals can move repeatedly over short distances between the stream and the shallow subsurface below the streambed. The resulting subsurface environments, which contain variable proportions of water from ground water and surface water, are referred to as hyporheic zones (see Figure 3.4). Hyporheic zones can be active sites for aquatic life. For example, the spawning success of fish may be greater where flow from the stream brings oxygen into contact with eggs that were deposited within the coarse bottom sediment or where stream temperatures are modulated by ground-water inflow. The effects of ground-water pumping on hyporheic zones and the resulting effects on aquatic life are not well known.

Figure 3. 4

The dynamic interface between ground water and streams. (Winter et.al, 1998.)

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3.3.

Interaction of Groundwater and Lakes

Lakes, both natural and human made, are present in many different parts of landscapes and can have complex ground-water-flow systems associated with them. Lakes interact with ground water in one of three basic ways: some receive ground-water inflow throughout their entire bed; some have seepage loss to ground water throughout their entire bed; and others, perhaps most lakes, receive ground-water inflow through part of their bed and have seepage loss to ground water through other parts. Lowering of lake levels as a result of ground-water pumping can affect the ecosystems supported by the lake diminish lakefront esthetics, and have negative effects on shoreline structures such as docks. The chemistry of ground water and the direction and magnitude of exchange with surface water significantly affect the input of dissolved chemicals to lakes. In fact, ground water can be the principal source of dissolved chemicals to a lake, even in cases where ground-water discharge is a small component of a lake's water budget. Changes in flow patterns to lakes as a result of pumping may alter the natural fluxes to lakes of key constituents such as nutrients and dissolved oxygen, in turn altering lake biota, their environment, and the interaction of both.

3.4

Interaction of Groundwater and Wetlands

Wetlands occur in widely diverse settings from coastal margins to flood plains to mountain valleys. Similar to streams and lakes, wetlands can receive ground-water inflow, recharge ground water, or do both. Public and scientific views of wetlands have changed greatly over time. Wetlands generally were considered to be of little or no value. It is now recognized that wetlands have beneficial functions such as wildlife habitat, floodwater retention, protection of the land from erosion, shoreline protection in coastal areas, and water-quality improvement by filtering of contaminants. The persistence, size, and function of wetlands are controlled by hydrologic processes (Carter, 1996). Characterizing ground-water discharge to wetlands and its relation to environmental factors such as moisture content and chemistry in the root zone of wetland plants is a critical aspect of wetlands hydrology (Hunt et.al, 1999).Wetlands can be quite sensitive to the effects of ground-water pumping. Ground-water pumping can affect wetlands not only as a result of

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progressive lowering of the water table, but also by increased seasonal changes in the altitude of the water table.

3.5

Groundwater and Coastal Environments

Coastal areas are a highly dynamic interface between the continents and the ocean. The physical and chemical processes in these areas are quite complex and commonly are poorly understood. Historically, concern about ground water in coastal regions has focused on seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers. More recently, ground water has been recognized as an important contributor of nutrients and contaminants to coastal waters. Likewise, plant and wildlife communities adapted to particular environmental conditions in coastal areas can be affected by changes in the flow and quality of ground-water discharges to the marine environment.

3.6.

Human activity and interaction of groundwater and surface water

Many natural and human activities affect the interaction of groundwater and surface water. These include agricultural development, urban and industrial development, and drainage of the land surface, modification to river valleys and modification to the Atmosphere.

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Chapter 4
Description of the study area
4.1 Geographical location

Belgium is a small country in Western Europe bordering the North Sea, between France and the Netherlands (Figure 4.1) with a total area of 30,528 sq km (CIA world fact) covers a land area of 30,278 sq km and water covers 250 sq km of the area. The geography of Belgium, with the geographic coordinate of 50 50'N, 4 00E, shows to have three different areas: lower Belgium (up to 100 m above sea level), Central Belgium (between 100 and 200 m above sea level) and Upper Belgium (from 200 to over 500m above sea level, with the highest point at an elevation of 694 meters above sea level.. Flanders is one of the three regions of Belgium and it is situated on the Northern part of Belgium
2

and covers an area of 13.524 km (44% of Belgium), bordered by Netherlands and France. Among the major rivers of Flanders, Nete is one of them. Nete Basin covers an area of 1672.6
2.

km The area used for the modeling in this thesis is found at the Eastern part of the Nete area, NE of Antwerp, Belgium.

Figure 4. 1

Geographical Location of Belgium

(from the World Atlas Map)

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4.2

Study boundaries and previous work

The project site is a rectangular area with dimensions of 1.5 Km by 1.8 km. it represents a part of the Aa river Catchment (Fig 4.2).The study area is bounded on all four sides by no distinct land feature topography or geological structure. The area is a cut - off from a large model. The model area is extending from 181181 m to 182981 meter on the Lambert co-ordinate system (West East or X- direction) and from 210274 m to 211774 meter in the y-direction in the Belgian Lambert co-ordinate system.

The study area includes the boundary of the site, two weirs, 14 measurement points, five cross section points and part of Aa river. The study has been performed by various sectors. The study on exchange processes in river ecosystems is a fundamental research project which is financed by FWO (Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek- Vlaanderen). The project is promoted by the University of Antwerp (UA) and performed by three universities, including the VUB and the University of Gent (UG). The project work dealt almost exclusively with the site at the Aa river near Poederlee in northern Flanders. Piezometers have been placed to get a better view of the groundwater flow around the site. A few distinctive interaction zones have been recognized, for which the exchange processes then have been investigated and modeled in detail. They are:

Interaction of shallow ground water with wetland or terrestrial ecosystems Interaction of deep ground water with the water course Interaction of shallow and/ or deep groundwater with the inundation area

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Kleine Nete basin

Study area

Figure 4. 2 The study area and its location in the Nete Basin.

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4.3

Topography

Figure 4.3 shows the contour of the Topographic elevations in the area. The highest points are found at the Southeastern part and reach 21.88 meters while the lowest elevation point is located in the Southwestern part of the model and reaches 4.85 meters above the datum of the model. Three dimensional view of the slope is shown in Figure 4.4 The slope of the elevation of the topography is shown in figure 4.5.

211600

211400

211200 Y- lambert (m)

211000

210800

210600

210400

181200

181400

181600

181800

182000

182200

182400

182600

182800

X - Lambert (m)

LEGEND

14

Elevation contour m Observation well 0 100 200 300 400

Figure 4. 3

Two dimensional view and elevation of the study area.

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Figure 4. 4

3D of Topography

Figure 4. 5

Slope map of the study area

4.4

Hydrological setting
Surface water

A 2.4 Km segment of the Aa river occurs in the study area. It flows through the study area from the North - Eastern to the South Western ends. This river segment is gaining from ground water in its upstream part and loosing in its downstream section (This is discussed in detail in
2

chapter 8). The main Aa river has a total length of 36.7 Km with a drainage area of 23.7 km .
3

The average discharge is 1.74m /s and average water depth is 1.15m and an average width of 7.5m.

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Ground water The regional aquifer underlying the area is preliminary the tertiary and Quaternary sands. The dominant sources of recharge to the model area are precipitation in the winter, river leakage and constant heads. Dominant mechanisms of discharge from the groundwater are drains, river leakages and pumping wells.

4.5

Recharge

Spatially distributed recharge over the entire first layer of the model (in mm/y) was used in the modeling process. There were six reclassified recharge zones.

4.6

Land-use and Soil

In general, the texture of the soil can be described as sandy loam, clay, loamy sand, and sand .The main land use types of the area are agriculture (50%), Meadow (17.29%), build up (1.98%) and coniferous forest (11.29%).

4.7

Climate of the study area

Flanders has a temperate, oceanic climate. The average annual rainfall is 780 mm and the average temperature is 9.8 degree centigrade. Statistical analysis of the observed temperature data indicates January being the coldest month of the year with the average temperature of 5.8 C and august as the warmest month of the year with an average temperature of 18C. However, the study area has a moderate average winter and summer temperatures of 5C and 14C, with wind speed of 3.27 and 3.84 m/s respectively.

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4.8

Available data

1) Digital Elevation Model: The DEM with 5m by 5m grid size covering the whole study area was created by digitizing the topographic contour map of the area. 2) Meteorological data: The basic meteorological data requirement for running the model is recharge. These data was collected from the previous works and the measurements on the Aa river. 3) Flow data: Observed daily discharge data are taken from the measurement points of the Aa river. The flow data is used for model calibration. 4) Hydrogeologic and Geologic data: The geologic and hydrogeologic characteristics and parameters of the study area including the hydraulic conductivity ranges, bottom elevation of the layers is collected from previous works by Solomon T, 2006. 5) Well data: Three pumping wells and 5 observation wells are identified in the area. Their location (X-Y coordinate), average pumping rate and depth of the filter is available from the previous studies and recent measurements from the study area.

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Chapter 5
Modeling tools
In this chapter, the tools used for modeling of the study area are described. The first part deals with ArcView GIS and in the second part, the three-dimensional groundwater modeling environment of waterloo hydrogeologic Inc, Visual MODFLOW is discussed.

5.1
5.1.1

ArcView GIS
Introduction

Geographical Information System (GIS) is a tool used to gather, transform, manipulate, analyze, and produce information related to the surface of the Earth, i.e. geographically referenced data. GIS is an information system where the database consists of observations on spatially distributed features, activities or events which are definable in space. ArcView is a GIS software that allows creating maps, and adding information. Using Arc Views visualization tools, records from existing databases can be accessed and displayed on maps. ArcView GIS 3.2 is the revised version of 3.1.

5.1.2

Types of data used in ArcView GIS

ArcView GIS comes with a full set of ready-to-use general purpose data. For many applications, the data are used to create maps or are used as a base where data can be added.

5.1.3

Geographical data

Data that describes any part of the earths surface or the features found on it can be called geographic data. Geographic data from a variety of sources are used in ArcView. This includes

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not only cartographic and scientific data, but also land records, photographs, real estate listings, videos, etc. In fact a surprisingly large amount of information is geographic.

5.1.4

Spatial data

Spatial data is the heart of every ArcView application. Spatial data is geographic data that stores the geometric location of particular features, along with attribute information describing what these features represent. Spatial data is also known as digital map or digital cartographic data.

5.1.5

Image data

Image data includes satellite images, Air photographs and other remotely sensed or scanned data.

5.1.6

Tabular data

Tabular data includes almost any data set, whether or not it contains geographic data. Some views are displayed are displayed directly on a view directly; others provide additional attributes that can be joined to existing spatial data. ArcView supports the following formats: i) Data from database servers such as Oracle, Ingres, Sybase, Informix, etc. ii) dBase III files iii) INFO tables v) Text files with fields separated by tabs or commas. XY event tables are used in this project.
5.1.7. Extensions of GIS

Some extensions of GIS used in the project re as follows: i) 3D Analyst

3D Analyst is an extension that adds support for 3D shapes, surface modeling, and real time perspective viewing to ArcView. Spatial data can be created and visualized with 3D analyst by using a third dimension to provide insight, reveal trends, and solve problems. ii) Geoprocessing

The Geoprocessing is an extension which performs spatial analysis function in ArcView. The wizard makes to walk through the desired theme to select for processing and allows selecting

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the name and location of the resulting output shape file. The following functions are provided in the wizard: a) Dissolve features based on an attribute b) Merge themes together c) Clip one theme based on another d) Intersect two themes f)Assign data by location. iii) Grid analyst extension

It is used to transform data from one form to another. This extension is used here to convert image to grid theme, convert grid theme to x, y, z text file, and extract X, Y and Z values for point theme from grid theme. iv) Spatial Analyst

The ArcView Spatial analyst is an extension used to discover and understand spatial relationship within a data. The main component of the spatial is the grid theme. The grid theme is the raster equivalent of the feature theme. The spatial Analyst also represents generic spatial analysis functionality on grid and feature themes that is added to ArcView as an extension that is loaded with Extensions in the file menu when the project window is active. The user interface components of the spatial analyst are loaded into the interface for views.

5.2

Visual MODFLOW

Visual MODFLOW is the most complete and easy-to-use modeling environment for practical applications in three dimensional groundwater flow and contaminant transport simulations. This fullyintegrated package combines MODFLOW, MODPATH, zone budget,

MT3Dxx/RT3D, and WinPEST with graphical interface. Visual MODFLOW is designed with a modular structure each dealing with a specified feature of the hydrologic system. Visual MODFLOW provides professional 3D groundwater flow and contaminant transport modeling using MODFLOW-2000, MODPATH, MT3DMS and RT3D.Visual MODFLOW Pro seamlessly combines the standard Visual MODFLOW package with WinPEST and the Visual MODFLOW 3D-Explorer to give the most complete and powerful graphical modeling environment available. This fully-integrated groundwater modeling environment allows to: Graphically design the model grid, properties and boundary conditions, Visualize the model input parameters in two or three dimensions, Run the groundwater flow, path line and contaminant transport simulations,

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Automatically calibrate the model using WinPEST or manual methods, and

Display and interpret the modeling results in three-dimensional space using the Visual MODFLOW 3D-Explorer

5.3. Surfer 8
Surfer is contouring software which easily and quickly converts grid data to contours and 3D surfaces, wireframe, vectors, image, shaded relief and post map. Contours of the topography and 3D views of the geological cross sections in this report were produced with surfer 8.

5.4

Grapher 7

Grapher 7 is an easy-to-use technical graphing package to generate graphs quickly and easily. With Grapher, creating a graph is as easy. One can change tick mark spacing, tick labels, axis labels, axis length, grid lines, line colors, symbol styles, and more. It is also possible to add legends, bitmaps, fit curves, and drawing objects to the graph. The 2D geologic cross- sections in this study were generated using Grapher 7

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Chapter 6
Model Setup

6.1

Description of the Groundwater Flow Model

The steps of model construction can be summarized as follows (Pinder, 2002): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Establish the minimum area to be represented by the model. Determine the hydrological features that can serve as boundaries to the model. Compile the geological information. Compile the hydrological information. Determine the number of physical dimension needed for the model. Define the size of the model. Define the model descritization. Input the model boundary conditions. Input the model parameters. Input the model stresses. Run the model. Output the calculated hydraulic heads. Calibrate the model. Make the production runs.

The groundwater model boundary areal extent must be such as to incorporate all locations where model heads are expected to change in response to stresses imposed on the model, incorporate the area of interest to the client and to the extent possible coincide with an area defined by distinct and easily evaluated hydrological boundary conditions.
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The model area in this study is found within the Nete Catchment. The groundwater model boundary encloses the main model domain which is part of a larger model domain for the Nete Catchment; it includes a segment of the Aa river flowing from the North Eastern to the South western part of the model. It is bounded by constant head boundary along all its four sides. This ground-water model was developed using Visual MODFLOW 3.0. ArcView GIS 3.2 software was also used for input data preparation and output data. The final model design follows several model runs to best match field data with model results, also called model calibration (chapter 7). The conceptual model information is inserted into the mathematical model and model choices are made to suit the data entered and output required. Visual MODFLOW requires model data to be entered as consistent units. Selected units are meters and day, except for recharge where mm/y is used. Model needs include: Layers Elevation limits Grid Recharge Surface elevation Bottom elevation Groundwater pumping Aquifer characteristics River conductance River bottom and stage

6.1.1

Model dimensions

The model area has a rectangular geometry and is 1.8 km from East to West and 1.5 km from North to South (Table.6.1).

Table 6. 1

Geographic extent of the model.

Easting Minimum Northing Minimum

0 0

Easting Maximum Northing Maximum

1800 1500

The geographic boundaries of the model domain are given in the Belgian Lambert co-ordinate system, and have a lower left corner co-ordinate at 181181 and 210274 as X and Y co-ordinate respectively. These values were used as X min and Y min in the model setup window of Visual
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MODFLOW. Similarly, the upper right model corner is 182981 and 211774 for the X and Y coordinates and these are used as X max and Y max in the model setup window of Visual MODFLOW (Fig 6.1).

Figure 6. 1

Model domain and units of measurement.

The model framework, given in Figure 6.1 is summarized in Table 6.2.

Table 6. 2

Model Configuration

CHARACTERSTICS Maximum model elevation Minimum model elevation Layers Grid cell size Rows Columns

VALUE 21.88 m -88.75 m 3 5m 300 360

6.1.2

Layers

There are three model layers labeled 1 - 3 from top to bottom. Layer 1 is composed of Quaternary sediments (HCOV 110 160) which comprise recent alluvium and Pleistocene sand.
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Layer 2 constitutes the HCOV 230 hydrogeologic unit which is a Pleistocene and Pliocene aquifer system composed mainly of fine sand and clays. Layer 3 is comprised of HCOV 240 (Pliocene clay layer) and HCOV 250 (Miocene sand aquifer). (Solomon T. 2007).
6.1.3 Elevation limits

The datum of the model is located within layer 2 of the model. The maximum model elevation is 21.87 meters above the model datum and represents the highest point of the topography of the model area. The greatest model depth is 88.75 meters below the datum of the model.
6.1.4 Grid

The model grid is 5 meters by 5 meters, evenly spaced throughout the model area in a North South, East-West orientation. The model grid includes 300 rows and 360 columns.
6.1.5 Elevation data

Surface and bottom elevations are entered to give model volume within the model perimeter. Surface elevations and bottom elevations data of the three layers were exported from ArcView and imported into Visual MODFLOW. Importing surface and bottom elevation Model surface elevation values shown in Figure 4.3 were entered into the model as an xyz data file. This surface elevation data was derived from an ASCII file by ArcView GIS. Similarly, Model bottom elevations of the three layers interpolated in ArcView were imported to the visual MODFLOW using the import elevation command. Figures 6.2 to Figure 6.4 show the elevations imported.

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Figure 6. 2

Bottom elevation for layer 1

Figure 6. 3

Bottom elevation of layer 2

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Figure 6. 4

Bottom elevation of layer 3

6.1.6

Hydrogeological information

Because of the close relationship between the hydrological properties of groundwater reservoirs and the geological characteristics of the materials that constitute the reservoir matrix, it is helpful to focus on the nature and compilation of geological information.

The model area consists of Quaternary and Tertiary sediments forming the Quaternary and Campine aquifer system, which is confined at the bottom by the Boom clay aquitard. Table 6.3 lists the geological formations, based on the hydrogeological classification system for Flanders (Cools et al. 2006). Figure 6.5 indicates the stratigraphy of the layers and figure 6.6 and figure 6.7 are geologic cross- sections across transects of North South across a line connecting the middle points of the two opposite boundaries of the model, and a cross section along the river. The quaternary (HCOV 0100), the Pleistocene and Pliocene (HCOV 0230), and the Miocene (HCOV 0250) aquifers are mainly composed of sand. These formations are semi-permeable because of the heterogeneous and irregular clay deposits. The Pliocene clay layers (HCOV 0240) occur in patches. The Miocene aquifer system (HCOV 0250) is the largest of the layers. In the
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local scale of the model of this study, the base of layer 1 is HCOV 160, which is sand. The base of layer 2 is HCOV 230 and the base of layer 3 is HCOV250. Below HCOV 250, there is a clay aquitard known as the Boom clay aquitard.
Table 6. 3 Main units of the HCOV hydrogeological code (Cools.et.al, 2006)

Table 6. 4 Aquifer code (HCOV) 0100 0220

Overview of aquifers on the HCOV classification for Flanders (Solomon T. 2007) Aquifer name Total Hydraulic conductivity (m/d) 1-10

Quaternary aquifer /sand/ Campine clay-sandcomplex Pleistocene and Pliocene aquifer /sand/ Pliocene clay layer Miocene aquifer/sand/

5-15

0230

4-40

0240 0250

0.04-0.2 3-30

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6.1.7

Aquifer characteristics data

The hydrogeologic layers of the model are bounded by clay aquitard at the bottom and recent alluvial deposits at the top. The steady state model requires the hydraulic conductivity of each model layer.

Figure 6. 5

Stratigraphy of the different aquifer units of the model.

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Figure 6. 6

Geologic cross section along the middle points of the model in the N S direction.

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Figure 6. 7

Geologic cross section along the river flow route

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6.1.8.

Hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity zones vary widely in the area. The total hydraulic conductivity of each HCOV layer is indicated in Table 6.4. (According to Solomon T, 2007), the total conductivity of the aquifers given in Table 6.4, were taken from a detailed hydro-geological study of the Flemish underground (Envico 2002a; Envico 2002b; Haecon 2002), and from pumping tests preformed by Provincial and Intercommunal drinking water society of the Province Antwerp (PIDPA).
6.1.9 River

The river in the model domain is the part of the Aa river (Figure 6.8). The river flows from North-East to South West direction within the model domain. Aa river has an average discharge of 1.74 m3/s, a water depth of 1.15 m and width of 7.5 m. Quantifying the amount of water exchanged between this river and the groundwater of the area is one of the major objectives of this model. The river stage, river bed bottom elevation, river bed thickness and river conductance were the data used for the surface water groundwater interaction modeling. The river boundary condition package was used for data entry into visual MODFLOW.

Figure 6. 8

Two- dimensional view of the river segment in the model domain.

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6.2

Input to the model

Water enters the model domain through recharge, river leakage and constant head boundary.
6.2.1 Recharge

The spatial distribution of the input recharge is shown in Figure 6.9. This data was reclassified into six zones (Figure 6.10). The recharge ranges from 133.5 to 386.81 mm/ year. The average annual recharge is about 261.33 mm/year. The recharge amounts to 17% of the groundwater input. Table 6.5 gives spatial distribution of recharge by zone of reclassification.

Figure 6. 9

Spatially distributed recharge

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The ground-water model recharge and the annual recharge rate per zone.
Recharge rate 3 m /y 1734.775 13750.9 150475 358172.2 244804.4 3176.55

Zone 1 2 3 4 5 6

Area (m ) 10775 69100 601900 1239350 769825 9050

recharge (m/y) 0.161 0.199 0.25 0.289 0.318 0.351

Figure 6. 10

Reclassified recharge zones and their values

6.2.2

River

River stage, river bed bottom elevation and conductance values were assigned to the river boundary condition in the model. River leakage entering the groundwater system of the model domain amounts to 17% of the total input.

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Model setup / ch.6

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44

6.2.3

Constant Head boundary

Constant head boundary input has the highest share and the values were taken from the values of a model for the whole Nete Catchment (Figure 6.11). The constant head values were assigned only to the cells at the model boundary. Constant head boundary contributes 66% of the input.

Constant head boundary (m)

Figure 6. 11

Head values of layer 1 used for constant head boundary.

6.3 Output from the model


Constant head boundary, river leakage, drains and wells constitute the means of groundwater output. Constant head consists of 11% of output, and river leakage consists 3% of the output. Groundwater discharge due to pumping through wells is the other means of output. There are three pumping wells in the model domain. Pumping through these wells represents 1% of groundwater discharge. The steady-state model uses three pumping wells (Figure 6.12 and Table 6.6). Pumping data was input to Visual MODFLOW manually. The required data were: Well Name Easting (X)

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Model setup / ch.6

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45

Northing (Y)
Screen elevation interval (m) Start (day)

End (day) Rate (m3/day)

Figure 6. 12

Location of the pumping wells

Table 6. 6

Location and pumping rate of the wells in the model domain.

X 181900 182100 182682

Y 211235 211350 211663

Q ( m3/d) -5.2849 -5.1671 -2.6959

Drains take the highest amount of discharge from the system. This represents 85% of the groundwater discharging from the system.

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Model calibration / ch.7

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46

Chapter 7
Model calibration
Model calibration determines how well the model results simulate field measurements, such as water level in wells and river gains and losses. In this iterative process, model value of input parameters such as rain recharge and hydraulic conductivity are adjusted by trial-and-error to best and reasonably match measured data.

Minimum and maximum values possible for the conceptual model should not be exceeded in calibrating the ground-water model. Calibration is evaluated through the analysis of residuals designed to bring the mean of the residuals close to zero, and to minimize the standard deviation of the residuals. The calibration procedure may lead to different solutions for different parameter combination.

The degree of fit between model simulations and field measurements can be quantified by statistical means. Statistical analysis for calibration includes the Mean Error (ME), Mean absolute Error (MAE); Root Mean squared Error (RMSE), and Normalized Root Mean Squared Residual (Normalized RMS). Among these, the RMSE is generally the best calibration indicator (Anderson and Woesner, 1992). The error criteria are defined as the error between measured head and the simulated head. Mean Error is the mean difference between the observed head (h0 ) and the simulated head (hs ) .

ME =

1 n (h0 hs ) n i =1

(7.1)

MAE is the mean of the absolute value of the differences in observed and simulated head. MAE = 1 n | h0 hs | n i =1 (7.2)

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Model calibration / ch.7

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47

RMSE is the average of the squared differences in observed and simulated heads.

RMSE =

1 n h0 hs n i =1

(7.3)

The Normalized Root mean squared Residual is the RMS divided by the maximum difference in the observation head values and is expressed by the equation.

NormalizedRMS =

RMS (h0 )max (hs )max

(7.4)

NormalizedRMS is expressed as a percentage and is a more representative measure of the


goodness of fit than the standard RMS as it accounts for the scale of the potential range of the data values.

7.1

Calibration water levels

Model results have been calibrated with average water levels in 5 observation wells. The water levels and locations of the Piezometers are indicted in Table 7.1 and Figure 7.1.

Table 7. 1

Water level and location of piezometers. Lambert X (m) 182186 182040 182468 182942 182144 Lambert Y (m) 211071 211646 210330 210962 211295 Water level (m) 10.20 11.64 11.16 11.27 10.68

Observation well name VUB_N1 VUB_N2 VUB_S1 VUB_S4 De Schutt

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211600

211400

211200

211000

210800

210600

210400

181200

181400

181600

181800

182000

182200

182400

182600

182800

Legend

Observation well Contour


0 100 200

Figure 7. 1

Location of observation wells

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Model calibration / ch.7

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49

7.2
7.2.1

Calibrated Aquifer Parameters


Hydraulic conductivity

Calibrated hydraulic conductivities are shown in Table 7.2. The optimum hydraulic conductivity values for the various hydrogeologic units were taken from the literature (Solomon, T, 2006) and are indicated in Table --. Layer 1 was calibrated at a horizontal Hydraulic conductivity value of 15 m/d and vertical hydraulic conductivity of 1.5 m/d. Layer 2 was calibrated at 6 and 0.6 m/d as the vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivities respectively. Layer 3 was calibrated at 5 m/d and 0.5 m/d for the horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities respectively. The initial values for the calibration of hydraulic properties were taken from past literature of Solomon T, 2007.
Table 7. 2 Calibrated Hydraulic conductivity values for the three layers Item Horizontal Hydraulic conductivity (m/d) Vertical Hydraulic conductivity (m/d) 1.5 0.6 0.5 Layer 1 15 Layer 2 6 Layer 3 5

7.2.2

Water levels

Model water levels and measured water levels are compared. Each red dot in Figure 7.2 plots an observation wells simulated water level with field-measured water level. A perfect match would plot along the blue line. The RMSE as seen is 0.094 meters.

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Figure 7. 2

simulated versus field measured water levels

Additionally, it is important to show that there is no systematic error involved in the spatial distribution of differences between modeled and measured heads. The simplest way to do this is to present a scattergram. Scattergram plot is produced with measured heads on the horizontal axis, and simulated heads on the vertical axis, with one point plotted for each pair of data at selected monitoring sites as shown in Figure 7.3

Figure 7.3 shows the linear regression plot of the measured and observed heads with a coefficient of determination (R) calculated as 0.99, which indicates a very high degree of correspondence between the simulated and interpolated observations heads for the steady state.

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Model calibration / ch.7

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Figure 7. 3

Scattergram for the measured versus simulated values

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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Chapter 8
Results and discussion
In this chapter the results or the model output are discussed and their interpretation is presented.

8.1

Output from the model

Groundwater leaves the system through river leakage, pumping wells, constant head and drains. Table 8.1 and Figure 8.1 show the water balance of the steady state model. The water discharged to the river by the groundwater is about 385.15 m3 /d. This is in the order of 3%.

8.1.1 Model Water balance


One of the methods of expressing model results is through a water balance. Water balance data provide both an indication of the relative magnitude of flow components as well as a means to check that the model solution has remained stable. If there is an error in the iterative solution then it is likely to show up in the water balance. External stresses such as wells, areal recharge, drain and river are simulated to calculate the water budget of the total area (Fig 8.1). Flow budget calculated to show the difference between the inflow and outflow in the model domain is indicated in Table 8.1. The water balance results have shown discrepancies of 0.00%. Because this is a steady-state simulation, no change in storage occurs.

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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Figure 8. 1

The Volumetric water balance of the model.

Figure 8.2 presents the percentage contribution of each component. It can be observed that 66% of the input is from constant head boundary. The output is dominated by drain boundary which accounts for 85% of the outflow. River leakage consists about 17% of the input and 3% of the output.
Table 8.1 Input and output of the model in terms of volume.

Item
Constant Head Wells Recharge Drains River leakage TOTAL IN OUT = -0.01

IN (m3/d)
7925.12 0.00 2090.46 0.00 2027.59 12043.17

OUT (m3/d)
1362.86 13.14 ~0 10282.02 385.15 12043.18 %Discrepancy = 0.00

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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River leakage 16.84

54

INPUT

Recharge 17.36

65.81 Constant head

OUTPUT
River leakage 3.198 11.32 Wells 0.1091 Constant head

85.38 Drains

Figure8. 2

Volumetric water balance of the model in percentage of components.

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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55

The flow budget shows a good result with 0.00% of discrepancy between inflow and outflow. It can be inferred that the water balance error is negligible. At this point, the simulation is ready to be used for further applications of the model like contaminant transport simulation.

8.1.2. Zonebudget
Zone Budget calculates sub-regional water budgets using results from steady-state or transient MODFLOW simulations. Zone Budget calculates budgets by tabulating the budget data that MODFLOW produces using the cell-by-cell flow option. The user simply specifies the subregions for which budgets will be calculated. These sub-regions are entered as 'zones' analogous to the way that properties, such as hydraulic conductivity, are entered. The sub-region over which the river flows was specified as zone 2 and the water balance of zone 2 was calculated as shown in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8. 2

Zone 2 water balance

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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8.3

Groundwater head

The head distribution output of the model is considered as an important hydrological parameter to characterize the flow system, in that it measures the energy of flow, and can also be used to calculate the direction and rate of movement of the groundwater. Figure 8.4 indicates the groundwater head and flow direction 1. From this figure it can be observed that flow is from higher heads which are on the Southeast and Northwest parts of the model to lower heads which are mainly located around the river.

Figure 8. 3

Ground water heads and flow directions in Layer 1

Figure 8.4 to Figure 8.6 show the equipotential head distribution and flow direction of groundwater across the three layers of the model.
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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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Figure 8. 4

Equipotential head distribution of layer 2

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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Figure 8. 5

Equipotential head for layer 3

8.3

Groundwater - Surface Water Interactions

Aquifers are often partially fed by seepage from streams and lakes. In other locations, these same aquifers may discharge through seeps and springs to feed the streams, rivers, and lakes. The exchange of flow between the aquifer and river at different locations has been modeled to find out the groundwater and surface water interactions. The interactions mainly depend on the difference of the water level in the river and in the underground reservoir and aquifer materials in the river-banks and in the bed of the rivers. When the aquifer water level is near land surface, seepage from the river is partially controlled by the height of the aquifer water level. Activities or events that result in a lowering of the water table, such as ground water pumping, induce more seepage from the river. Conversely, events that cause the aquifer water level to rise (recharge events) will result in a decrease in river seepage. If aquifer water levels rise above the level of the river, what was previously a losing river reach will become a reach that is gaining water from the aquifer.

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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Figure 8. 6

Cross section along column 328, groundwater flows to the river

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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Figure 8. 7

Cross- section along row 185. Groundwater flows away from the river

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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Groundwater head and River water level positions

12 NE ( upstream) SW ( Downstream) 11

12

11.5

11

10.5

10

10

9.5

8.5

River stage Riverbed Groundwaetr head


7.5

7 0 500 1000 1500 Distance (m) 2000

7 2500

Figure 8. 8

Position of the river water level and the groundwater head at different locations along the river flow path.

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Results and Discussion / ch.8

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Figure 8. 9 North- South water table cross section along column 222.

The water table is generally parallel to the topography. The general flow direction of the model is to the central part of the model (Figure 8.11).

Figure 8. 10

General flow direction of groundwater within the model domain

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Conclusions and Recommendations / ch.9

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63

Chapter 9
Conclusions and Recommendations

9.1

Conclusions

A steady state groundwater model has been developed by using Visual MODFLOW. The model water balance was calculated. The loosing and gaining reaches of the river were

identified and the groundwater and surface water exchange was quantified. The input parameters were taken from previous studies. In this approach, the distributed recharge, wells, vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the three layers, constant head, river, and drain boundary conditions were the inputs to the groundwater system. The groundwater level and the flow budget were calculated as outputs of the model. Calibration result shows that there is a good agreement between the measured and the simulated values. Moreover, the pumping rate isnt so high and, there is no significant influence of the pumping wells on the groundwater movement. The general flow direction of the groundwater is from Northwestern and Southeastern part of the model area to the central part. Uncertainty of parameter estimates and boundary conditions may be the most significant limitation. Slight alterations in parameters such as hydraulic conductivity and recharge can lead to dramatic differences in model output. Similarly, boundary conditions strongly control the flow regime, and so a poor representation can result in an inaccurate model.

The model was calibrated in order to minimize the error on the model parameters and increase accuracy of the simulation under steady state conditions by using hydraulic properties of the aquifer based on previous studies of the area. The calibration results with the 0.094 meter root mean squared error agree quite well with the observed heads.

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Conclusions and Recommendations/ch.9

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64

9.2.

Recommendations and future considerations

In this work, modeling of groundwater surface water interaction has been carried out in a part of the Nete Catchment using Visual MODFLOW and GIS tools.

Simulation of the steady state condition of the groundwater system has been done. However, there are uncertainties in input parameters involved during the model calibration.

The model has several limitations due to its assumptions. For example, because we assume steady-state conditions, we must ignore transient hydrologic processes. These include variably and intermittent pumping-well rates, as well as seasonal and annual fluctuations in river stage, precipitation, and evapotranspiration. To reduce these limitations as much as possible, the following improvements are recommended for future modeling: 1. Assigning accurate parameter values as much as possible (e.g., Kh, Kv). 2. Perform transient-model runs. Transient simulations will help us to understand effects of several influential factors, including pumping rate and seasonal river fluctuations. 3. Combine groundwater modeling with other methods of recharge discharge characterization. 4. Collect and evaluate data to improve critical components of the system such as the aquifer and/or river boundary conditions

In general, further studies which will enhance this model using more accurate data are needed.

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References
Anderson, M.P. and Woessner, W.W., 1992. Applied groundwater modeling. Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, California, 381 p. Anu Acharia, 2006. Test and Application of Groundwater Surface water interaction model for the Aa, Msc Thesis - VUB Bear, J., and A. Verruijt, 1987, Modelling groundwater water flow and pollution. D. Reidel publishing company, 441p. D.Smedt, Ground water hydrology course note. D. Smedt, Groundwater Modeling course note Dueker, 1979. Geography 176A Introduction to Geographic Information systems. Ernst W.G, 2000. Earth Systems, processes and issues Fetter, 2001. Applied Hydrogeology ( Fourth Edition ) Ford A, 1999. Modeling the environment, an introduction to system dynamics modeling of environmental systems Freeze and Cherry, 1979. Groundwater Freeze, R.A. and Witherspoon, P.A., 1966. Theoretical analyses of regional groundwater flow, Analytical and numerical solutions to the mathematical model. Water Resources Res. 2, pp. 641-656. Harbaugh, A.W., 1990. A computer program calculating subregional water budgets using results from the U.S. Geological Survey Modular Three- dimensional finite difference Groundwater flow Model, Open file Report, pp. 90-392 Heath, R.C., 1983. Basic groundwater hydrology. U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply paper 2220 Hillel D (1998) Environmental Soil Physics. Academic Press, San Diego, CA

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Jensen SK, Dominigue JO (1988) Extracting topographic structure from digital elevation data for geographical information system analysis. Photogramm Eng Rem S 54(11):15931600 Jobson HE (1989) Users manual for an open-channel stream flow model based on the diffusion analogy. US Geological Survey, Techniques of Water Resources Investigations 894133 Jon E. Hortness, Peter Vidmar, 2005. Surface-Water/Ground-Water Interaction along reaches of the Snake River and Henrys Fork, Idaho. USGS, Report 2004 5115 Julie Anne Ahern, 2005.Ground-water capture-zone delineation: method comparison in synthetic case studies and a field example on fort wainwright, Alaska Kollet, S.J., Maxwell. R.M., 2005. Integrated surface groundwater flow modeling- A free surface overland flow boundary condition in a parallel groundwater flow model Konikow, L.F. and Reilly, T.E., 1999. Groundwater Modeling. The Handbook of Groundwater Engineering. Boca Raton, CRC Press, pp. 20-1-20-40 Kresic, N., 1997. Quantitative Solution in Hydrogeology and Groundwater Modeling. Lewis Publishers , Boca Raton, Florida, 461 pp. Lambs, Luc., 2003. Interactions between groundwater and surface water at river banks and confluence of rivers. Journal of Hydrology 288 (2004) 312-326 McDonald, M.G. and Harbaugh, A.W., 1984. A Modular Three Dimensional Finite Difference Groundwater flow Model-MODFLOW. US Geological Survey Open File Report 83-875 Mc Donald , M.G., and Harbaugh, A.W., 1988. A modular three dimensional finite difference groundwater flow model. U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water Resources Investigations, 06-A1 Pinder G.F , 2002. Groundwater modeling using GIS Sear, D.A., Armitage, P.D., Dawson, F.H., 1999. Groundwater dominated rivers. Dept of geography, University of Southampton, Highfield, Volume 13, Issue 3, pp. 255-276 Solomon T, 2007. Spatio temporal impacts of climate and land-use changes on the Groundwater and Surface water resources of a lowland Catchment

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Sophocleous, M, 2002. Interaction between groundwater and surface water: the state of the science. Hydrogeology Journal, 10:5267 Steven L, Richard G, R. Steven, David E, and Paul M, 2008. GSFLOWCoupled Ground-Water and Surface-Water Flow Model Based on the Integration of the Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System (PRMS) and the Modular Ground-Water Flow Model (MODFLOW-2005) Todd, David K. 1980. Groundwater Hydrology. 2nd Edition. New York: John Wiley & Son Tom Brooks, 2006. Heretaunga Steady-State Ground-Water Model Waterloo hydrologic, 2002. Visual MODFLOW v.3.0.0 Users Manual, Ontario, Canada Winter, T.C., 1995 .Recent advances in understanding the interaction of groundwater and surface water, Reviews of Geophysics,33( supplement): 985-994 Winter TC, Harvey Jw, Frank OL, Alley WM, 1998. Groundwater and Surface water a single resource, US geological Survey Circular 1139. http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1139 Winter, T.C., 1999. Relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems. Hydrogeology Journal 71, pp. 28-45 Woesner WW, 2000. Stream and fluvial plain groundwater interactions: Rescaling Hydrogeologic thought. Groundwater 38(3): 423-429 World Atlas, http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/europe/be.htm Zheng and Bennet, 2002. Applied Contaminant Transport modeling ( Second edition)

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Annex

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ANNEX

3D view of the model and its three ayers

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Annex

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Wells and their location, the 3 larger wells are pumping wells and the rest are piezometers.

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Annex

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Hydraulic conductivity values assigned to the three layers

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Water table cross section along column 80

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Water table cross section along row 108

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Water table cross-section across column 301

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