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Vol. 30, No. 2 (May, 1993), pp. 209-226 Published by: Springer on behalf of the Population Association of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2061838 . Accessed: 14/06/2012 01:36
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Withdeclinesin fertility mortality, populations manydeveloping and the of countries in is have begunto age. This trend especiallyevident partsof east and southeast Asia; are increased attention theimplications population to of researchers paying agingandissues related individual to agingin theseregions.The pace of population agingin manyAsian will be rapid,though at thelevel of agingin developed not nations. example, For nations ratios(number persons and olderper 100 persons15 to 64) are of 65 old age dependency to such as China, Japan, expected roughly double between1985 and 2025 in countries Indonesia, Malaysia,andThailand (Concepcion 1987). The swift pace of theagingprocess of moreclearlywhichcharacteristics associated are the underscores importance learning in and with economic dependence disadvantage old age. In Nations is the Gender one obviousfactor. fact, United (1988) has calledforfurther and of and of ariseas . study the"nature magnitude theeconomic socialimbalances . . that and a resultof rapidchangesin age distribution the impactof alternative policies and whichaim at minimizing differentialwell-being . . the in for . support systems theelderly between sexes" (p. 33). the
* This paperis based on research funded theMacArthur Foundation the of by through Center International and of Research Princeton at of was Research theOffice Population University. Preparation thisdraft funded a by at Institute Aging on of National Carolina postdoctoral fellowship theCarolina Population Center, University North Sanders and LindaMartin, Tom Espenshade, reviewers at ChapelHill. AnnePebley, Korenman, twoanonymous in of comments. acknowledge cooperation theBiro PusatStatistik providing withthe I the me provided helpful data. Association America of ?D Copyright 1993 Population
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in of that Studiesconducted a variety cultural settings suggest oldermenconsistently have moreeconomicresources thanolderwomen.The generalargument thatafter is a lifetime economicdisadvantage, of womenare leftdependent theirspousesor adult on for children material support. (See, forexample,Ellickson1988; Hess 1985; Simmons [1945] 1970; UnitedNations 1985a.) Otherresearchers, however,have suggested that is women'sposition relative adultchildren notone of dependence one of authority. to but that women as receive material benefits from Theyargue age, they alliances with their adult and thatfathers tendnot to inspirethe same level of filialloyalty.(See, for children of example,Bart 1969; Brown 1982; Flinn 1985; Harrell 1981.) Proponents the two olderwomen than oldermen,butthey do perspectives agreethat relymoreon family differ thatsituation on whether Differences in places women at an economicdisadvantage. choices of reference researchers' groups, culturesof interest, theoretical underlying to and perspectives, research methodologies be contributing disparate may findings. in and Genderdifferences some basic demographic social characteristics probably in in to differences material resources old age. Because womentendto contribute gender than of showthat women live longer men,sex ratios olderpopulations outnumber generally tends to increasewith age. Because of the gendergap in life men; this difference menolderthanthemselves, expectancy, coupledwiththefactthatwomenusuallymarry later and either aloneor with mostwomen spendtheir yearswidowed living adultchildren. that Martin the For example, of (1988) reports in Asiannations proportion elderly and (65 who are widowed aboutone-half two-thirds, to whereas fewer older)females rangesfrom malesarewidowed. Thesegender than of in differences lifeexpectancy, one-quarter elderly and marital in differences economic status, living arrangements helpto explaingender may in in Gender differences availableroles and opportunities, bothyounger well-being. and the availableto oldermen olderadulthood, mayinfluence level of material also resources and women. a I consider these of on issuesusingdatafrom 1986survey theelderly Java,Indonesia. in and I describe differences individual household economic and gender well-being identify to differences. factors contributingtheobserved
in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being
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money (pooled by all working household members), spending money, distributing the and members goods amonghousehold (Geertz1961; Hart 1986; Jay 1969; Williams1990). Some studies, however, have suggested thisdecision-making that poweris notabsolute in practice (Mather 1983;White Hastuti and 1980). Evans(1990) reports evidence control that overfunds an important is determinant thenutritional of status olderpersons Java.He of on finds thatworkincomeis a good indicator men's control funds, of of whereasmanaged income a better is measure women'seconomic of control.
Gender in DifferencesEconomic Well-Being Table 1. Indicators Economic of Well-Being, Gender by (Means) Category Indicator" Individual-level Individual receipts Household-level Household income Housingquality Itemsavailableto household N(receipts) N(household measures) Female 2.99 5.09 2.77 3.55 1,674 1,758 Male 4.51 5.56 2.91 3.85 1,562 1,599 $US(1986)a Female 19.49 36.31
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a I used linearinterpolation assignrupiah to values to themeancategory values. The average rupiah valuesthen wereconverted U.S. 1986 dollarvalues. to b Variablerangesare 1-9 fortheincomemeasures, 1-5 forhousing quality, and 1-7 forthe items household index.
members meansthatwomen(and men)mayclaimcontrol family overincomeearnedby others givento them. but household income. This household measure represents Average monthly the access to resources. ideal on Javais that household The respondent's potential all members sharein the availableresources; some evidence,however, thatelderly suggests persons receiveless thana per capitashare(Evans 1990; Sunarto1978; White1976). The often on of surveyprovidesno information the distribution income withinthe household; therefore elderly the actualshareof household is respondent's resources unknown. in Both monthly incomevariablesare reported nine categories: fewerthan 10,000 rupiah; 10,000to 19,999;20,000 to 29,999; 30,000 to 39,999;40,000 to 49,999; 50,000 to 74,999; 75,000 to 99,999; 100,000 to 149,999; and 150,000 or more.In 1986, 10,000 Fund 1990). rupiah equaled$7.80 US (International Monetary of assess the respondent's My othertwo indicators economicwell-being general environment. These household-level are physical measures less subjectto intrahousehold thanis household allocation decisions income. This indexcombines information sevenitemsscored0 to 3 and on Housingquality. summedfor a range of 0 to 21; a higherscore indicatesbetter quality.It includes on information typeof largest outside wall, typeof largest floor, lighting source facilities, of drinking and water,sourceof washingwater,bathing The facilities, toiletfacilities.2 for coefficient thismeasure .858. I divided indexintofivecategories is the alphareliability 0 fortheanalysis: to 3, 4 to 7, 8 to 11, 12 to 15, and 16 to 21. Thisindexcombines Items availableto thehousehold. to weighted responses questions on access to 11 items.A respondent scored0 on theitemif thehousehold nothave did access and 1 or more(depending if upontheitem'sweight) theitemwas available.Items available fewer to households wereweighted more scoresranged from to 27. The 0 heavily; itemsand weights as follows:cupboard are and furniture bicycle,watch,stove,and (1); radio(2); sewingmachine, and motorcycle refrigerator car (4). The and television, (3); coefficient the scale is .821. I collapsed the indicator for into seven alpha reliability in for 0 categories (based on breaks thedistribution) theanalysis: to 1, 2 to 3, 4 to 5, 6 to 8, 9 to 15, 16 to 20, and 21 to 27.
214
Demographic Variables
Gender. Women accountfor 53% of the sample (n= 1,758) and men for 47% on (n = 1,599).3 Older men and womendiffer severalvariablesthatmay be relatedto economic well-being. (See Table 2.) in Age group. Age is reported single years in the survey;because most elderly I individuals notknowtheir do exactages, however, use fourage groups thisanalysis: in of 60-63, 64-67, 68-73, 74 andolder.The age distribution thefemale is population slightly that themalepopulation; differences theage structures themaleand thus in of of olderthan in female differences well-being. populations maybe confounding aggregate gender Men's and women'sresidence residence. Rural/urban patterns notdiffer; do therefore Table 2. Independent Variables, Gender by (Percentages) Variable Age Group 60-63 64-67 68-73 74+ Residence Rural HealthStatus Poor Fair Good Excellent Marital Status Married Widowed Divorced Household Type nuclear Two-generation Lives alone Withspouseonly Extended family Skills Illiterate Does notspeakIndonesian skill No income-generating WorkRoles Neverworked Retired Employee Self-employed/employer Roles Domestic with children Daily contact advice Gives marriage n Females 34.77 21.61 24.91 18.71 65.36 5.13 30.03 61.54 3.30 31.35 63.42 5.23 12.00 13.71 10.24 64.05 67.86 81.00 86.74 26.74 38.62 11.43 23.21 71.10 77.64 1,758 Males 31.77 29.02 20.76 18.45 62.29 6.00 29.02 59.04 5.94 89.43 9.63 0.94 29.21 1.62 20.45 48.72 32.64 52.66 79.80 3.25 34.40 16.32 46.03 76.30 86.66 1,599
in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being
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well-being. in for cannot differences economic helpto explaingender controlling residence of determinant in residence the analysisbecause it is an important Even so, I included material wealth. health does notdiffer Healthstatus.Self-reported status (poor, fair,good, excellent) I for status to activity. becauseit is related economic by gender. controlled health married, compared only30% of to Nearly 90% ofthemenarecurrently Marital status. to are more likely be widowed to than menbecausementend are thewomen. Women much wives. Womenalso are are die at younger ages and typically a fewyearsolderthantheir more likely than men to be divorced;the sample, however,containsfew divorced thus, the quickly; especially men,tendto remarry As divorced persons, respondents. noted, in 40% ofboth menand the persons smallat anypoint time.Roughly is number divorced of havebeendivorced leastonce. at thewomen on to head to define four Householdtype.I used information relationship household with nuclear), living with spouseonly(one-generation living alone,living household types: own children nuclear),and livingin an extended-family (two-generation spouse and/or and or children; bothfostering foster, adopted Own children be biological, may household. 1985). Personslivingwith are on adoption common Java(Geertz1961; Koentjaraningrat in from analysis. the Persons identified living a as members onlywereexcluded nonfamily of own children; presence the maybe livingonlywitha spouseand/or nuclear household a in including child's spouse,places theindividual an member, anyother typeof family nuclearhouseholds extendedor household.Personsin one- or two-generation extended also maybe livingwithnonfamily members suchas servants. Men are households family in of women be living either to household; greater proportions more than type nuclear likely Despite a reported of womenthanof men are livingalone or withextendedfamily. on numbers bothmenand women of for arrangements Java,substantial preference nuclear kin thanspousesor children. with other are living Levels of Skills of to stableor offer someindication therespondent's ability obtain The skillsvariables also provide limited information in years.Thesevariables well-paying employment thelater to resources over earlier adultyearsandhis or herability accumulate abouttheindividual's social status. the educational time.In addition, Although general they mayreflect family's the relative social status acrossthe generations, family's levelshave increased markedly who the mayhave changedlittle.For example,53.9% of respondents speakIndonesian, whodo notspeakIndonesian, in a household are but national language, only18.1% ofthose who has completed juniorhigh school or a higherlevel of withat least one member education. in either theRomanalphabet A (used forthenational maybe literate Literacy. person language)or in one of the ethnicalphabets.Literacyin the Roman alphabetis more of a levelsare verylow forthiscohort theelderly; Educational provides common. literacy than would a measureof grades of clearerindicator differences among individuals of A proportion womenthanof menare illiterate. completed. greater to The ability speakthenational to language mayhelpolder Ability speakIndonesian. This or officials in certain typesof employment. personsin dealingswithgovernment thanmento report of Womenare less likely being variable also an indicator education. is able to speakIndonesian. of the skill. An income-generating Although proportions men and of womenwith of skills greater proportion menthanof women income-generating are notlarge,a slightly a between education and correlation sucha skill.Sigit(1988) reports positive reports having
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having job skillamong a these elderly respondents. finds better-educated He that persons are more likely to reportpossessing skills, but that, among those who have skills, better-educated are persons less likelyto be usingthem currently. a sourceof income, As skills in income-generating appearto be mostimportant workers the informal to sector. Thusjob skillsmayaffect the incomeboththrough relationship educational to levels and the that to through benefits suchskillsbring persons withlittle no schooling. or
Social Roles
either workactivities from Becauseresources or maybe obtained through kin,activity in in and authority bothspheres maybe important determining economic well-being. work to a Work roles.I usedboth variable: pastandcurrent activity form four-category neverworked; retired; currently working, employee; currently working, self-employed or of all everbeingin the employer. Three-quarters thewomenand nearly of themenreport are laborforce.Olderwomen less likely than oldermento be currently working (34.6% vs. thosewhoareworking, women less likely havepower(employer) are to or 62.3%). Among in autonomy (self-employed) theworkplace. how oftentheyvisitedchildren Daily contactwithchildren. Respondents reported I outside household howoften the and thesechildren visited them. dichotomized living this of who measure domestic to withadult activity identify respondents reported dailycontact and less children thosewhoreported frequent no contact. or whodo Manyelderly persons have a childliving notcoreside withadultchildren and nearby (Evans 1985; Mantra Kasai as children havingdaily contact,and 1987). I code elderlypersonswith coresident as children having contact. majority respondents no The with of respondents no living report morelikely have suchfrequent but to contact. dailycontact, menare slightly at to indicated what they Willingness giveadviceregarding marriage. Respondents age shouldmarry whattheywoulddo if a childwanted marry and believedtheir children to late. I defined possibleresponses either the as activeor passive.4Persons earlyor marry are at are giving leastone activeresponse coded 1; persons giving onlypassiveresponses said wouldoffer to coded0. Mostof therespondents they advice,butmenare morelikely is an report activeresponse.The purposeof this indicator to measurethe individual's within family. variable, The information on theelderly the authority however, provides only In the of members notmeasured. other are respondent's perception; perceptions other family the advicewouldbe followed. whether parental words,it is notknown Methods In assessing grossand neteffects gender well-being, analyzeeach of the the of I on four indicators economic of resources Because all oftheindicators well-being of separately. I are (thedependent variables) ordinal-level variables, use cumulative logistic regression. (See Agresti 1984.) This ordinal-variable modelis based on thecumulative distribution logistic-regression of of of rather thanon individual probabilities the categories the indicators well-being of Withan indicator form logistic probabilities in themorefamiliar (as binary regression). the numberof intercept is of j categories, estimated j - 1. For example, parameters in thuseightintercepts calculated, householdincomeis measured nine categories; are the of or representing respective probabilities havingan incomeof 150,000rupiah more, or or 100,000rupiah more,and so on downto havingan incomeof 10,000rupiah more. for One coefficient, is estimated each independent variable that becauseitis assumed the B,
in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being
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k k category to category + 1 is thesameforall k. In from on effect anyvariable moving of of incomeexample,I assumethattheeffect beingwidowedversusbeing thehousehold is married thesame acrossall incomecategories. I five nestedmodels. Economic technique, estimate Using this logisticregression model. In the second model, the only on genderin the first is well-being regressed The status. and residence health as of effect age is controlled, are rural/urban confounding type)are addedin and status household variables (marital demographic possiblemediating and job languageability, of model. The threemeasures skillslevels (literacy, the third usingall showthat tests collinearity for in model.Diagnostic skills)areincluded thefourth of the Finally, measures publicand of three measures skillsin themodelis notproblematic. and advice)are addedas marriage with children, giving roles(work roles,contact domestic of with addition each setofmediating the in effect I regressors.focuson changes thegender variables. namely indicator, economic onlyfortheindividual-level modelis estimated The final of reflect characteristics measures the economic Because thehousehold individual receipts. are roles on thoseindicators of effects individuals' members, expected the all household and unclear thusare notestimated. may becausecausation receipts the from modelsofindividual type I excludehousehold in between individualresourcesand living run in both directions the relationship within household in receipts differences individual Instead,I assess gender arrangements. models. in types a seriesof stratified modelsstratified main sourceof material by receipts the I also estimate individual werenot on reliance kin. Levels of receipts versus primary self-support primarily support, from the of by separately source(withtheexception workincome);the results reported in on differences remittances. someinformation gender modelsprovide stratified
218
The maritaland householdvariables represent possible sources of supportor opportunities access to resources. for Unmarried persons thosewho live alone or only and thus withspouse will have fewerindividuals contributing the household'sresources; to economicwell-being shouldbe lower. Conversely, personsin theirlevels of household with multigeneration family households shouldbenefit from havingadditional members The effects marital of statusshouldbe similarforindividual whomto pool resources. from spouses. economic well-being:unmarried persons cannot rely on transfers for in in Controlling genderdifferences maritalstatusshould reduce the differences The possible mediating effects householdtype on household of economicwell-being. are Womenare morelikely live alone (negative to on economic effect well-being unclear. households resources)and more likelyto be in extended-family (positiveeffect).The shouldbe especiallystrong; for of effect livingalone, however, controlling the gender on should reduce the gender difference household difference that characteristic on well-being. boththe individual's to The skillsvariablesmay influence abilityand opportunity Personswithgreater skillsshouldbe better able to findwork obtainaccess to resources. I shouldearnhigher incomes.In addition, interpret skillslevels as and, whenworking, rolesin younger adulthood. Persons with skillsshould have indicating accessto work better resources. Womentendto be less skilledthanmen, so I been moreable to accumulate for in that differences individual receipts. expect controlling skillslevelswillreduce gender in effect the household Skills levels shouldhave less of a gender-mediating well-being will but maybe models:unskilled respondents contribute to thehousehold, that less effect of masked thecontributions others. by I expect and levels that moreactivepersons thosewith moreauthority havehigher will who work and those with more authority the in of individualreceipts.Respondents will have more earnedincome. Personswho interact workplace daily withtheiradult to and are remittances. children thosewithsome domestic authority likely receivegreater and lowerlevelsof domestic lowerlevelsof workactivity slightly Womenreport markedly for shouldreducethegender and therefore activity authority; controlling thesedifferences on effect receipts. I expecta directgendereffect individual on even economicwell-being remain, to and are The netgender effect whenthesevariousdemographic social factors controlled. Even shouldbe due to an economic adulthood. advantage experienced menthroughout by in womenon Javamay hold lower-paying whendifferences skillslevels are controlled, In if jobs thanmen and thusmay have lowerlevels of economicwell-being. addition, adultyearsthanmenin thelaborforce, womenhave spentfewer theywill have had less to opportunity accumulateresources.Gender, however, also may affecteconomic If norms levels of support well-being through regarding support. womenreceivehigher levels of economicwell-being, of theother net from factors. kin,theymayreport higher will help to sortout these Resultsof the analysisstratified main sourceof support by effects. possiblecompeting I expectgender in differences household economic to a of well-being be largely result I Thereforeexpectthat for differences livingarrangements. in controlling thedemographic the effect household on economic variables, especially livingalone, will eliminate gender well-being.
RESULTS
in from seriesof nested the modelsare summarized Tables 3 and4. Table The results 3 illustrates effect each set of control as variables added to the is changesin thegender
in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being
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Well-Being: ChangesacrossNested Table 3. The Effect BeingFemaleon Economic of Models (Odds Ratios) Model Gender only Plus age, health, and residence Plus demographic variables Plus skills variables Plus social roles n Individual Receipts .287*** .282*** .473*** .733*** .833* 3,236 Household Income .694*** .706*** .837* 1.223* 3,357 Housing Quality .860* .893 .889 1.219* 3,357 Items Available .735*** .753*** .884 1.342*** 3,357
the results from finalmodelforeach indicator well-being. of The model.Table 4 reports and of acrossthemodels,withtwo changelittle effects thedemographic skillsvariables are in the model (with exceptions: age and healthstatuseffects significant the simpler in and but models. status) becomeinsignificanttheexpanded gender, age, residence, health
220
of Table 4. Regression Results(Odds Ratios):The Effects theDemographic, Skills,and Roles Variables Variable Female Age group 64-67 68-73 74+ Ruralresidence Healthstatus Excellent Good Fair status Marital Widowed Divorced Household type Lives alone Spouse only family Extended Skills Illiterate No Indonesian No job skill Workroles Employee Self/Employer with Contact children Gives advice n
X2
Individual Receipts .833* .978 .976 .730** .618*** 1.680* 1.218 1.132 .465*** .508***
Household Income 1.223* .915 .948 .930 .354*** 1.823** 1.531** 1.251 .852 .948 .135*** .551*** 1.962***
Housing Quality 1.219* .924 .908 .999 .180*** 1.012 .846 .946 1.184 .871 .535*** .686*** 1.155 .799** .300*** .968
Items Available 1.342*** .899 .835* .978 .220*** 1.511* 1.049 .922 .891 .853 .176*** .490*** 1.638*** .671*** .267*** .974
Retired
1475.609*** 3,357
1261.195*** 3,357
1631.292*** 3,357
havelowerindividual incomes than married do because probably persons, divorced persons from women cannot receive transfers spouses.(Halfofthemarried report unmarried persons from their spouses.) material support receiving in mediate gender the effect household on differences household Gender type partially for of are household-level The economic type similar thethree well-being. effects household in households, nuclear-family indicators. Compared with respondents two-generation personswho live alone or only withspouse have lower levels of householdeconomic households have higher levels. These effects and well-being, personsin extended-family to in of reflect and differences thenumber members contributing wereexpected mostlikely on effect thehousehold-level does nothavea strong Marital status thehousehold economy. indicators.
in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being
221
222
because of one-quarter themen. Thus womenappearto be at an economicdisadvantage being in the work force and being they are less likely to be employed.Further, 11.1% of the men and respondents, cannotbe equated. Amongworking self-sufficient mainsourceof support. are report remittances their that 25.7% of thewomen an individual they receipts, mayexperience women havelowerlevelsoftotal Although The remittances. resultsof the of particularly categories support, advantagein certain thatwomendo not receivehigher suggest by analysisstratified main sourceof support the thanmen. Further, resultsshow thatamong self-supporting levels of remittances (See Table 5.) Among lower also have significantly levelsof receipts. women respondents, as likelyas mento be in a higher who relyon kin,womenare three-fourths olderpersons as elderly persons,womenare one-fourth Amongmoreself-sufficient incomecategory. in difference workincomeis notdue The category. gender as likely mento be in a higher an of menwork average 36.7 hours week,and per in employed worked; todifferences hours womenwork35.5 hours. employed but reduces does not for skills,and socialrolesvariables Controlling thedemographic, The respondents. in amongthe self-supporting the eliminate genderdifference receipts modelsfortherespondents who in however, theexpanded effect reverses direction, gender levels of status,womenappearto receivehigher on are dependent kin. Net of marital on to women whoaredependent kinappear widowed than words, remittances men.In other economic disadvantage. the experience greatest
CONCLUSIONS
than womenhave lowerlevels of economicwell-being In thebivariate relationship, in household type,skillslevels, and social roles status, men. Genderdifferences marital for in resources. differences observed economic Controlling various to contribute thegender and reducesthe economicmeasures on the factors reverses gendereffect the household effect individual on receipts. measures is of The positive effect beingfemalein thefinalmodelforthehousehold household in within types.For example, composition likelydue to differences household witholdermales are morelikelyto be dependent (and thusto adultchildren coresiding withfemales. coresiding contribute thanare adultchildren less) the that the support argument economic well-being, results individual-level Regarding
in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being o
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women experience economic disadvantage throughout adulthood. can argue One that gender in in differences skillslevels reflect differences availableroles at younger gender ages. Because remittances at lower levels thanworkincome,womenappearto be at an are because theymustrelyon otherpeople to providesupport. economicdisadvantage In men are morelikelythanwomento report addition, receiving pensionsand investment income;thisfinding suggests thatmenhave been moreable to accumulate resources over no that morethanmenfrom time.These data contain indication womenbenefit alliances withadultchildren. It appears women havedirect control fewer of that resources four for primary reasons: 1) womenare less likelyto have workincome;2) whenwomendo work,theygenerally olderpersons whoaredependent kin,women on earnless than men;3) evenamong receive and lowerlevels of remittances; 4) womenhave been less able to accumulate resources adulthood. during incomeis themostaccurate measure women'scontrol resources of Yet ifmanaged of of and if workincomeis the mostaccurateindicator men's control (see Evans 1990), better relation men.About60% of menreported in to womenmayfaresomewhat earning workincome,and the same percentage womenreported of the beingeither head of the household thespouseofthehead. Thiscomparison or be should madecautiously, however, were not asked specifically because respondents whether theymanagedthe household's income.Some of thewomenwho reported beinghead or spouseof head, particularly in extended be of families, maynotactually incharge thehousehold's resources. 22% Further, of the women who identified as themselves head or spouse are livingalone, so they probably managelow levelsof resources. In sum,gender in differences availableandappropriate in bothyounger older roles and adulthood to in differences theindividual economic appearto contribute gender well-being Differences current in of theelderly. and to livingarrangements in skillslevelsare central in differences household resources. understanding gender
NOTES
1 Interviewing oldermembers thehousehold create problem all a of can regarding independence ofobservations becausetheunit thesampling of frame thehousehold, theunit analysis the is but of is individual. in Usingall elements (eligiblerespondents) a selected cluster is (household) generally not a problem whenthenumber elements cluster smallor whentheintraclass of is per correlation within is or thecluster thesurvey on variables negligible negative (Kalton1983). Forthesampleusedin the each household contained average 1.2 eligible an of a analysis, smallnumber. respondents,relatively 2 The following codes are used: wall (3=cement) (1.5=wood, other)(0=bamboo); floor
(1.5=petromac, other) (0=kerosene); drinkingwater and washing water (3=pipe, pump) (1.5=well, other)(0=spring, rain,river);bathroom (3=own in house) (2=own outsidehouse) (1=shared) (0=public, other);and toilet(3=own withseptictank)(2=own without septictank)
3 The respondent's twicein the questionnaire. genderis reported Codingerrors produced 86 differs between household individual the and cases in which For gender reports. thesecases I assigned on between respondent his or herfirst only) the and gender thebasis of reported difference age (or is I the is spouse.If theage difference three yearsor greater, assumethat younger and person female theolderperson male.On Java,husbands is are their wives.I couldnotresolve 21 typically olderthan are from analysis. cases withthisdecisionrule,so they amongthosewhichI dropped the 4 To thequestion whattherespondent of woulddo if thechildwanted marry to early,active and responses include the Passiveresponses denypermission ask thechildto postpone marriage. are on the on and what approve marriage, the depends spouse,depends dowry, other, notsure.Regarding are respondent woulddo ifthechildhadnotmarried theidealage, active by responses urgehimorher
(3=tile)
in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being
225
a no not include suggestion, a problem, to marry helphimor herfind spouse.Passiveresponses and and notsure.
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