TOPIC 1

PARTS OF SPEECH

1.0 This topic aims to enhance learners knowledge of the formal features of the English language system. It provides an explanation to a selection of language structures identified in the English Language Proficiency 11 syllabus for non TESL learners. The exercises that follow the explanation should provided some immediate practice applying the language rules learnt. Leraners are required to practice much more from publications readily available, should they wish to improve their personal proficiency in the English language.

1.1 Learning outcomes 1.1.1 identify the different types of language structures of word clasess namely, conjuctions, prepositions and interjections.

1.1.2. apply the language structures appropriately through relevant exercises

1.2 Content CONJUNCTIONS INTERJECTIONS PREPOSITIONS

NOUNS

PARTS OF SPEECH

VERBS

ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS ADVERBS

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2.1 CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are used to join words, phrases, clauses or sentences to express a partticular idea or ideas. Study the following examples.

Anne and Kamilla are coming to the party.

The conjunction and joins the words Anne and Kamilla.

You can write the answer in ink or in pencil

The conjunction or joins the phrases in ink or in pencil

Although she is a famous and successful writer, she leads a simple and frugal life.

The conjunction although joins she is, a famous and successful writer and she leads a simple and frugal life

Both the girls and their fathers are scientists.

The conjunction both...and joins the sentences the girls are scientists and their fathers are scientists

2.2 We can further discuss conjunctions in terms of their meanings or functions. Conjunctions usually perform one function, but some conjunctions perform two different functions.

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Conjunctions As

Examples i) As he was walking down the dark lane, he heard a strange noise behind him. ii) I did not want to go to the movies as I did not have enough money

Function shows time

cause and effect

Since

i) I have not met my brother since the day I was born. ii) Since I studied hard for the examination, I passed them with flying colours.

Time

cause and effect choice

Or

i) Coffee or tea, sir asked the waiter. ii) You had better finish the assingment fast, or you will not be able to submit it on time.

condition

While

i) While I was walking home, it started to rian heavily. ii) In the movie Beauty and the Beast, the heroine is ravishingly beautiful, while the hero is just the opposite.

time

contrast

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Conjunctions are analysed from three aspects, which are form, function and position. 2.3 Forms Conjunctions have three basic forms; 2.3.1 Single word Example: so, for, while, since 2.3.2 Compound Example: provided that, as well as, so that 2.3.3 Correlative Correlative conjunctions always appear in parts. The most common correlative conjunctions are; both...and, either...or, neither...nor not only...but also,so...as and whether...or. Example: Both my husband and my father were born in November.

2.4 Functions Conjunctions have two basic functions 2.4.1 Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single or clauses, for example: 1. Amariah and Azham are getting married next month (noun and noun) 2. They ran and laughed together. (verb and verb) 3. The water was warm, but I didnt go swimming. (clause and clause) 2.4.2 Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example; 1. I went swimming although it was cold.

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2.5 Positions Conjuctions can be placed at the beginning or between words or clauses. Example; 1. Since he is not there, we should not enter. 2. When I am sick, my father takes me to that clinic. 3. My mother cooked through the night though she was not well. 4. They would not take any action unless the firm does not meet the requirement.

Exercise 1 Fill in the blanks with the appropriate conjunctions. 1. _______________he tried hard, he failed to get through the security.

2. Wait here___________ I tell you to move.

3. Take your umbrella___________it is going to rain.

4. Sazali is slow____________ smart.

5. ______________he was ill, he had to stay at home.

6. I shall not ride in his carriage____________invited. 42

7. Be kind ___________you will be rewarded.

8. ____________Azlan ___________his wife are attending the ceremony.

9. ____________soon __________he is ready, bring down the cake.

10. He is___________here__________there.

3.1

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are used to show the relationship or connection of a word with other words. Prepositions generally indicates the position, source, direction, destination, situation, comparison, reason and so on between two sets of ideas.

3.2

FORMS OF PREPOSITIONS Prepositions may consist of one, two or three parts: 3.2.1 Examples of One-part prepositions: at after 3.2.2 by below for into on to

Examples of Two-parts prepositions: according to away from because of except for up to out of

3.2.3

Examples of Three-parts prepositions: in front of on top of in relation to by means of in comparison with

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3.3

TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in

3.3.1

We use at to designate specific times. The train is due at 12:15 p.m. We use on to designate days and dates. My brother is coming on Monday. We're having a party on the Fourth of July. We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year. She likes to jog in the morning. It's too cold in winter to run outside. He started the job in 1971. He's going to quit in August.

3.3.2

3.3.3

3.4

Prepositions of Time: for and since 3.4.1 We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years). He held his breath for seven minutes. She's lived there for seven years. The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries. 3.4.2 We use since with a specific date or time. He's worked here since 1970. She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty. a) One point in time : at with noon, night, midnight; with the time of day b) Periods of time on with days in with periods longer or shorter than a day; with part of the day, with months, with years 3.4.3 Extended time ( duration) since, for, by, fromto, fromuntil, during 44

Examples: They are getting engaged on Sunday at 5 oclock in the evening. He has been away from school for three weeks. World War II lasted from 1939 until 1945.

3.5 Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in 3.5.1 We use at for specific addresses. Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham. 3.5.2 We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc. Her house is on Burma Road. And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents). She lives in Durham. Durham is in Windham County. Windham County is in Connecticut.

3.5.3

3.6 Preposition of Location Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition IN (the) bed* the bedroom the car (the) class* the library* school* AT class* home the library* the office school* work ON the bed* the ceiling the floor the horse the plane the train NO PREPOSITION downstairs downtown inside outside upstairs uptown

* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.

3.6.1

The point itself

in, inside for something contained. There is plenty of food in the refrigerator. on, on (to) the surface A coconut tree fell on to the roof of the house. at a general vicinity 45

Ill meet you at the hotel.

3.6.2

away from the point

away ( from ) general places or vicinities I came away from the library. off at a distance from the point The car ran off the road when it knocked the signpost. across, through, over, along moving from one place to another He kicked the ball through the window. out of- moving from a bounded area They chased the dogs out of the school compound. 3.6.3 towards the point to, into, towards movement towards a particular place He went to the airport to get his mother. 3.6.4 towards and then away from the point behind, through, across, round, by, past movement towards a place and then away from it. The car skidded round the corner. 3.6.5 vertical and horizontal movement from the point up, down, along, across, over movement in relation to a direction Two school boys walk along Manchester Street. 3.6.6 higher than the point Over generally higher than the point There is a thick fog over the entire city. Over directly above A lamp hung over the dining-table. above directly higher than the point; on a higher level We flew above the clouds. on top of close to the point, sometimes touching 46

The tourists put their bags on top of the bus.

3.6.7 Lower than the point under directly below The ball is under the table. underneath close under, sometimes touching She wore a pretty dress underneath her thick coat. beneath, below directly under, at a lower level The police found the body beneath a pile of wood. 3.6.8. Neighbouring the point by, beside, next to at the side, near He sat by the river reading a book. between relating the positions of one object to more than two objects In the photograph, Sara was standing between her father and mother. among, amid in the middle of ( several objects ) She found her chain amid the ruins of the burnt house. opposite facing She sits opposite her friend in the library. around surrounding, all round She put a frame around the painting. in front of at the beginning ( in relation to the point ) He was standing in front of a long queue. near close to the point, not far from the point I like to have my bag near the window.

3.7

Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition

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3.7.1 We use to in order to express movement toward a place. They were driving to work together. She's going to the dentist's office this morning. 3.7.2 Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. We're moving toward the light. This is a big step towards the project's completion. With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition. Grandma went upstairs Grandpa went home. They both went outside.

Exercise 1 Read the sentences below and fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. She stood ______the window and looked out as if waiting _____ someone. Tina spilt some orange juice ______ her pants. The letter N comes _______ O and P in the alphabet. We can hardly see planes in the sky because they normally fly ______ the clouds. I had to wait for along time at the checkout line ______ the grocery store because the Lady ______ of me had bought a lot of groceries Nazim was away for a long time because he travelled round Europe ______ six months last year. He does not speak in English. Do you thin he can speak the language _______ two months? We were sitting in front ______ this group of friends at the movie theatre. They could not stop talking ______ the time the movie started to the time it ended. If you want to go to the park, you will have to drive by the Farmers Market Grocery Store, ______ the bridge and _____ the corner of West Street, you will see it on your left. David ran ______ the house next door to help his neighbour when he saw a suspicious-looking man lurking around outside the house.

10.

Exercise 2 Write a sentence for each of the following illustrations. Use suitable prepositions in the sentences.

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1.2.2 CONJUNCTIONS hold parts of a sentence together, kind of like glue. As with glue, however, there are several types of conjunctions, each one with its own specific use Conjunctions connect words or groups of words. They are different from prepositions in that they do not have an object. There are three types of Conunctions: 1. Coordinating conjunctions 2. Correlative conjunctions 3. Subordinating conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions connect words of the same kind. Examples of coordinating conjunctions are: and but for nor or So yet AND: And is used to add things or ideas together - one thing plus another thing. For longer lists, and is used between the last two items. And is a joining conjunction. Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies." (Michael went ... Sarah went ... they both went to the movies)

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"Thomas slipped and fell on the ice." (Thomas did two things he slipped, then he fell. And joins the actions.) "I pulled out the weeds and Jane watered the flowers." (Two people each did different things while working in the garden. The two parts could stand alone as sentences - "I pulled out the weeds." "Jane watered the flowers." Since the ideas in the sentences are related to each other, they can be joined by and to form one compound sentence. ) "We went to the store to buy milk, bread, oranges, dog food and coffee." (When you write a series in a sentence, use commas between all the items except the last two - there you need to use a conjunction. A comma in front of the and is optional. )

OR: Or is used between things or ideas about which there is a choice or when we don't know the answer. Or is a selective conjunction. Examples:

"Michael or Sarah went to the movies." (One of them went, but not both. We don't know which one. ) "Thomas slipped or fell on the ice." (Thomas had a problem on the ice. Did he slip? Did he fall? We don't know, but he did one of them. ) "I will pull out the weeds or Jane will water the flowers." (For some reason, these two people cannot both work in the garden. One of them can. Will it be I? Will it be Jane? I don't know. Or tells us that only one of the things will take place. ) "We need to buy milk, juice, iced tea or soda at the store." (We evidently need something to drink, but it doesn't matter what it is. We need to choose one of the items in the list. That is what or is telling us. ) BUT: But is used to let us know that something happened in a sentence that we did not expect or to prepare us for an excuse. But is a conjunction of differences. Examples: "Michael went to the movies, but Sarah stayed home." It would have been normal for Sarah to go to the movies with Michael. This time she did something different - she stayed home. But introduces such a difference. "Thomas slipped on the ice, but he did not fall." We would expect Thomas to fall when he slipped on the ice. He did something different - he did not fall. But introduces that difference. "We were going to pull out the weeds, but Jane decided to water the flowers instead." Jane and I had planned to pull weeds. For whatever reason, Jane began to water the flowers instead. She did something different from what I had expected. But introduces that difference. "We found everything we needed for the camping trip but the first aid kit." The first aid kit was different - it could not be found. But introduces that difference.

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"I did my homework last night, but the dog ate it." But is used quite often to introduce a reason why we did not do something we were supposed to do, like turn in our homework.

SO: So is used to introduce something that follows or is a result of something else. So is a conjunction of consequences. Examples:

"Michael went to the movies, so Sarah went to visit her friend." As a result of Michael's going out by himself, leaving Sarah alone, she decided to go out as well. If Michael had stayed home, Sarah would have stayed home, also. ( So introduces the consequence of Michael's action. ) "Thomas slipped and fell on the ice, so he was limping when he arrived home." As a result of slipping and falling, Thomas hurt himself and had to walk with a limp. (So introduces the results of the fall. ) "Jane watered the flowers so it would be easier for me to pull out the weeds." Watering softened the soil, with the result that it was easier to pull the weeds out by their roots. ( So introduces the result of the watering. ) "We found the first aid kit, so we could finally leave for the camping trip." For reasons of safety, we did not want to go camping without a first aid kit. We finally found it, with the result that we could leave at last. (So introduces that result. ) YET: Yet is also used to introduce a result that is different or opposite from what we expected or what would be normal. The different result can be positive or negative. Yet is a conjunction of unexpected difference. (Yet can also be used as an adverb referring to a time or an event that has not occurred, so be careful. "Jack has not yet finished his chores.")

Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies, yet she was worried about leaving the baby with a sitter." Sarah should have been having a good time, but the truth was different from what we would expect because of her worry. "Thomas slipped and fell on the ice, yet he did not get hurt." You would expect a person to be hurt after falling on the ice, but Thomas wasn't. That different result is introduced by yet. "Jane and I pull the weeds in the garden every week, yet there are always more to pull the next week." One would expect, or at least hope, that if all the weeds were pulled from the garden this week, there would not be any left to pull next week. Alas, nature is not like that. In this case, yet introduces a result that is different from what Jane and I hoped for. "We had finally loaded everything we would need for the camping trip, including the first aid kit, yet we could not leave because the car's battery was dead." Not being able to leave was an unexpected result after all the stuff was loaded back into the car. This unexpected result is introduced by yet.

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Subordinating conjunctions connect two ideas by making one idea dependent upon the other. Subordinating conjunctions are in sentences that contain a main idea and a dependent idea.The subordinating conjunction always comes before the dependent idea. If the dependent idea comes before the main idea, a comma is used to separate the two.If the main idea comes first, no comma is used.

ALTHOUGH: Although (which can also be an adverb) introduces a condition or situation that was contrary to the first part of the sentence. It is a conjunction of contrariness. Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies, although the heavy snow made it dangerous to drive." It was probably not wise or safe to drive in the heavy snow just to see a movie. Michael and Sarah did it anyway, which was an action different from what we might expect. Although introduces that difference. "Thomas slipped and fell on the ice although he was wearing rubber boots." We would expect the rubber boots to keep Thomas from slipping, but they didn't. Although introduces a result different from our expectations. "I pulled out many weeds from the garden, although Jane had done the same a few days before." Either Jane had not done a very good job pulling weeds or the weeds grew very fast. Whatever the reason, the fact that there were many weeds for me to pull a few days after Jane pulled them was not expected. "We spent $30 at the grocery store although we only went to buy a gallon of milk." Our expectation had been to spend less than $3.00 at the grocery store, but instead we spent $30. The difference between what we expected and what actually happened is connected by the conjunction although. SINCE: Since can be an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction. As a conjunction, it means "during a period following a time when", "continuously from some time in the past", or "because".

Examples:

"Sarah went to see "Titanic" by herself since Michael did not like love stories." You could substitute because for since in this sentence. It introduces or connects the reason why Sarah went to the movies alone. "Thomas had not fallen on the ice since he was a little boy." Since refers to the continuous time from his childhood during which Thomas didn't fall on the ice, until now. "The weeds had grown wildly since I pulled them out last week." I pulled out the weeds last week, but from then until now they grew rapidly. Since refers to the time period following the last time I pulled out the weeds. "We went to the store to buy extra food since we were expecting company for the weekend." The conjunction since means because in this sentence. It introduces the reason why we were buying extra food.

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BECAUSE: Because is used to introduce a reason for another action or event. It is a conjunction answering the question 'why?'. Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies because there was nothing good on television." Because connects the reason for Michael and Sarah's action with the action itself. "Thomas slipped and fell because the sidewalk was covered with ice." Because connects the reason why Thomas fell with the act of slipping and falling. "I pulled out the weeds because Jane was allergic to them." Because introduces the reason why Jane did not help me pull out the weeds. "We went to the new supermarket for groceries because it was having a sale on fresh fruit." Because introduces the reason why we went to the new store instead of the one we usually went to. Correlative conjunctions are similar to coordinating conjunctions, except that they work in pairs. Examples of correlative conjunctions are: 1. both..and 2. either..or 3. neither.nor 4. not only.but also 5. whether.or The sick hiker would neither eat nor drink. Neither Coach Toft nor Coach Rasmussen could believe how hard the team played. The wrestling match was both exciting and high-scoring. Not only are the Badlands rugged, but they are also beautiful. ADDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS: nor, thus, therefore, while

Exercise 1 Change the conjunctions in the following sentences to different ones. Notice how the meanings of the sentences change. Write your answers on the lines. 1. Mr. James and his family went to Kuala Lumpur once a month.

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______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

2. Although Steven was seventeen when he signed up for karate classes, he had to bring a note from a parent or a guardian.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

3. Siti ran to the bus stop, but the bus had already gone.

______________________________________________________________________

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4. I had checked all of my answers with a calculator, so I was surprised when I failed the test.

______________________________________________________________________

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5. The Roberts family was ready to go on a picnic, yet the rain continued to fall.

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6. Because the salesman was very good at his job, he was able to convince the minister to buy the old purple car. 54

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

7. Tony had worked at the same job since his family bought the company eighteen years ago.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________ 8. John was not able to get a good job because he refused to take a shower.

______________________________________________________________________

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Exercise : 2

Circle all the conjunctions in the following sentences. Be careful, because many of the conjunctions can also be adverbs or prepositions. 1. Hamburgers, pizzas and fried chicken are the most popular, although least healthy, fast foods. 2. Since last August, the stock market has been falling, but our economy is still very strong. 3. Everybody but Brenda passed the math test, although she was usually the best student. 4. Henry's car stalled a lot and made funny noises, so he took it to the garage. 5. George offered Alice a ride since he was going in that direction anyway. 6. We did not have any vinegar or lettuce, yet I was told to make a salad. 7. The policeman was tired and sick, yet he still had to direct traffic around the accident scene. 55

Exercise 3

Join the following pairs of sentences with suitable conjunctions. Be sure to use the correct punctuation. Write the joined sentences on the lines. 1. Louis liked reggae music. Carla preferred classical music.

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2. The horse galloped toward the barn. A rabbit suddenly ran out of the tall grass.

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3. Many women watch television soap operas. The love scenes are often too realistic.

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4. There is now a new president in the United States. There was much confusion in counting the votes.

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5. We eat a lot of ice cream in this country. There are many overweight people.

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______________________________________________________________________

6. Walter had bad breath. He ate garlic every day.

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1.2.3 INTERJECTION is a part of speech that usually has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence and simply expresses emotion on the part of the speaker, although most interjections have clear definitions. Interjections are used to express feelings or emotions.They are the least used part of speech. Interjections function independently from the rest of the sentence. Huh? What does that mean? It is therefore set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma or exclamation mark. Interjections Followed by a Comma Interjections are words used as exclamations.When an interjection shows mild feelings, a comma follows it. Note: the word following the comma is not capitalized unless it is a proper noun or pronoun. Oh, that test was easy. Oh, I did well on that test. Interjections Followed by an Exclamation Point When an interjection expresses strong feelings or emotions, an exclamation point follows it. Note: the exclamation point is an end punctuation mark, so the word following it begins a new sentence and is always capitalized. Wow! You made a 98 on the English test. Common interjections 57

Wow Oh Ouch Tsk Uh Alas Woah Oops Psst

Wow! Did you see that play? Ouch! That hurts! I, uh, think we should leave now. Woah! How did he catch that? My, that certainly is a huge cat. It's great to be a Canadian, eh? Yuck! That tastes disgusting. The table below shows some interjections with examples. interjection meaning expressing pleasure expressing realization ah expressing resignation expressing surprise alas dear expressing surprise asking for repetition eh expressing enquiry expressing surprise inviting agreement er hello, hullo expressing surprise hey calling attention "Hello! My car's gone!" "Hey! look at that!" 58 expressing hesitation expressing greeting "Dear me! That's a surprise!" "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today." "What do you think of that, eh?" "Eh! Really?" "Let's go, eh?" "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru." "Hello John. How are you today?" expressing grief or pity expressing pity "Ah well, it can't be heped." "Ah! I've won!" "Alas, she's dead now." "Oh dear! Does it hurt?" example "Ah, that feels good." "Ah, now I understand."

expressing surprise, joy etc hi hmm expressing greeting expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement expressing surprise oh, o expressing pain expressing pleading ouch uh uh-huh um, umm well introducing a remark expressing pain expressing hesitation expressing agreement expressing hesitation expressing surprise

"Hey! What a good idea!" "Hi! What's new?" "Hmm. I'm not so sure." "Oh! You're here!" "Oh! I've got a toothache." "Oh, please say 'yes'!" "Ouch! That hurts!" "Uh...I don't know the answer to that." "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh." "85 divided by 5 is...um...17." "Well I never!" "Well, what did he say?"

Exercise 1

Supply an appropriate interjection for each sentence. 1. (pain) That looked like it hurt. 2. (anger) Thats my bike! 3. (surprise) You scared me!

Exercise 2 Use each of the following interjections in a sentence. 1. woah 2. psst 3. oops 4. uh 5. hey

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Exercise 3 Fill in the blanks with suitable interjections in the sentences given below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. _____________________ How come you are here ? _____________________ The lady is no more. _____________________ Everybody is sleeping. _____________________ I am so scared. ____________________ I stood first. _____________________, you knocked that ball out of the park. _____________________,you really need to take care of yourself. ____________________,what did you say. _____________________, now I understand the problem. _____________________, that really hurts.

Exercise 4

Match the interjections with an emotion it might be used with to show that emotion. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Ah Hello Oh Ouch Well Hmmm Hey expressing greeting expressing pain expressing pleasure expressing surprise introducing a remark expressing doubt callling attention

Task

Surf the internet and read up more on prepositions, conjunctions and interjections and make your own notes. 60

Bibliography

Azar, B. S., and Azar, D. A. (1999). Fundamentals of English grammar ( 2nd ed.). New York: Longman. Capital College Community Foundation. (2004). INDEX to the guide to grammar and writing. Retrieved from http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index2.htm Eastwood, J. (2005). Oxford learners grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Samy. R.K. Kotayan et.al. (2007). Making sense of English grammar. Selangor:Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

TOPIC 2 Listening and Speaking

2.1 Synopsis

This topic is an extension of the Listening and Speaking module in WAJ3102. 61

This unit enables you to acquire the skills in listening and speaking. Listening is a skill, which can be developed by knowing what it is and acquiring some effective strategies and techniques of successful listening. Speaking involves a number of routines conducted simultaneously by the speaker and the listener.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

2.2.1 Listen critically and respond appropriately to various stimuli. 2.2.2 Listen for meaning and understanding of a variety of texts and give personal response. 2.2.3. Communicate fluently, correctly and confidently in a variety of situations. 2.2.4 Assess own language progress through reflections/journals.

2.3 Topic Framework Listening Skills What makes a good listening text? Oral Response to Speeches and Lectures

LISTENING

Effective Content and Delivery for Listening

Effective Communication Group Presentations

SPEAKING

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Listening Practice to a Variety of texts

Linking words and Connectors

2.4

Listening Skills

Listening is a very important skill that everyone should master because we spend nearly 60% of our working hours listening to a variety of things being said to us and around us. Listening is the ability to identify and understand what others are saying. This involves understanding a speakers accent, his grammar and vocabulary, and grasping his meaning. An able listener is capable of doing these four things simultaneously. A series of micro-skills are involved while one is listening. They include the following:

2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 2.4.7

Predicting what people are going to talk about Guessing unknown words or phrase Using ones background knowledge of the subject Identifying relevant points Retaining relevant points (note-making, summarizing Rejecting irrelevant point Recognising discourse markers (e.g. well, oh, besides, another thing, Recognising cohesive devices (e.g. such as, which, however, etc) Understanding different intonation patterns and uses of stress Understanding inferred information

2.4.8 2.4.9

2.5 What Makes a Good Listening Text ? To answer this question we will have to look at two aspects ,Content and Delivery Delivery 63

2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5

Delivery must be convincing It must be gripping Presents new information Delivery is clear and unambiguous in terms of accent Quality of recording .Is the recording clear? Will background noise affect comprehension

Content What is effective content for Listening ? Look at the features given in the following table.

Features Interest factor Genre Cultural accessibility Speech acts/ Discourse structure

Questions to ask Will this be interesting for my students? Is it in a genre easily recognised by my students? Will my students understand the context and ideas? Does it discuss abstract concepts or is it based on everyday transactions?

Information Language level

Too much information given at one time? Or too little ? Is the majority of the vocabulary and grammar appropriate for my students?

Lenght

Will I need to cut part of the recording because it is too long? Or is it too short?

2.6

Listening is an active process 64

Listening is an active process and has three basic steps. They are hearing, understanding and judging

2.6.1

Hearing Hearing means listening enough to catch what the speaker is saying. For instance, if you were listening to a verbal documentary on cats and the speaker mentioned that many animals belong to the cat family. If you can repeat the fact, then you have heard what has been said.

2.6.2

Understanding Understanding happens when you take what you have heard and understand it in your own way. Lets go back to the documentary on cats. When you hear that many animals belong to the cat family, think about what that might mean. You may think, Maybe this means that animals having certain features an

2.6.3

Judging Judging occurs when you understand what the speaker has said and think about whether it makes sense. Do you believe what you have heard? You might think. How could animals which we call by different names be all in the cat family? But, then again, when we bring in our knowledge of the world about human beings for example, we fall under one category called human beings and yet categorise ourselves as being Malay, Chinese, Indian, and others, according to our race. Thus, the information in the documentary we have just listened to seems believable.

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2.7 LISTENING STRATEGIES

Listening is a demanding process. In order to function efficiently in the English language, you must develop good listening strategies which will help you to listen, process and respond to information in both academic and social contexts. Some good listening strategies that can help you to listen better include the following:

2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3

Concentrate and focus on the listening text/speech. Listen with a purpose. Decide what information you should listen for and what you can ignore. If you are going to hear it only once, try to grasp the gist of the text/speech. Do not worry about understanding all the words you hear or even trying to memorise every detail. If you are going to hear it more than once, try to grasp the general meaning of the text/speech the first time you listen to it. When you listen to the text the second time, concentrate on identifying specific details or key words. Guess the meaning of unfamiliar words by paying attention to the context in which they occur. Learn to process information quickly or in real time because in real life situation, you often hear something said only once.

2.7.4

2.7.5 2.7.6

2.8 HOW TO BE A GOOD LISTENER 2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 Give your full attention to the person who is speaking or to the text or speech you are listening to. Make sure your mind is focused. Let the speaker finish before you begin to talk. Listen for main ideas. They are the most important points the speaker wants to get across. They may be mentioned at the start or at the end of the talk, and repeated a number of times. Jot down some important points given by the speaker. (If you are listening to identify important points or to summarise the speech later) 66

2.8.5

2.8.6

Pay particular attention on the use of discourse markers and cohesive devices by the speaker

2.9 LISTENING FOR MEANING In order to make sense of what is being communicated involves hearing ,understanding and judging.This follows a sequence trigger meaning listening to a speaker will

which in turn signals the listerner to give an appropriate

response.The response can be in any form as long as it follows up to show that the listener understands. If meaning is unclear, follow-up can be in the form of asking for clarification to ascertain a fact. This can be seen in the following sequence.

2.9.1

Listening for meaning sequence

Listening sequence:

effectively for meaning

in a dialogue involves the following

Trigger meaning

Signal meaning

Response to signal

Follow-up shows understanding

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Task 1 :

Groupwork Get into groups of 4. Get 2 group members to carry out the conversation. The other two will listen to the following conversation and indicate the language function and the sequence as :

T for Trigger; S for signal; R for response; F for follow-up Sequence F2 Mahmud. Ah, Mahmud loves to play, to play competitive games, gets upset when he lostes. 0. T 0. to inform Function

F1 Mmm, pardon?

1 ____

2. __________

F2 Huh?

3. _____

4. __________

F1 Pardon?

5. _____

6. __________

F2 Gets upset when he loses.

7._____

8. __________

F1 Huh?

9._____

10._________

F2 Loses.

11._____

12._________

F1 Mmm. Mmm. He likes to ball, play ball

13._____

14._________ 68

games you mean? F2 Thats right. Thats what I mean. 15. ____ 16._________

Answer

F2 Mahmud. Ah, Mahmud loves to play, to play competitive games, gets upset when he lostes.

F1 Mmm, pardon?

1. S

2. To ask

F2 Huh?

3. S

4. To ask

F1 Pardon?

5. S

5 To ascertain

F2 Gets upset when he loses.

6. R

7. To exlain

F1 Huh?

8. S

9. To ask

F2 Loses.

9. R

10. To tell

F1 Mmm. Mmm. He likes to ball, play ball games you mean?

10. F

11. To reaffirm

F2 Thats right. Thats what I mean.

12. R

13. To confirm 69

(Pica, Holliday, Lewis, Berducci & Newman, 1991,)

3.0 CRITICAL LISTENING Critical listening is a form of listening that involves analysis, critical thinking and judgment. Making judgments during listening is often considered as a barrier to understand a person, and there's a lot of truth in that. However, critical listening occurs when you still want to understand what the other person is saying, but also have some reason or responsibility to evaluate what is being said to you and how it is being said. For example, if there's an upcoming election and you need to decide who to vote for, you probably use some form of critical listening when you watch a televised debate. You listen, AND you evaluate. While experts on learning and communication almost

universally demean the importance and value of critical listening, when it comes to real life, listening critically is used every day. The key though, is to try to understand the other person FIRST, before one evaluates

3.1 Listening Text Types

Below are some of the listening texts that we often need to listen to critically:

3.1.1 Forum

70

A forum can be defined as a public meeting or a programme (as on radio or television) involving discussion of a problem usually by several authorities and usually among experts. It is an open discussion involving audience participation. Example : Money Matters

3.1.2 Speech A speech is a talk or public address. The best impromptu speeches are the ones written well in advance. Giving a speech is also an act of expressing or describing thoughts, feelings or perceptions by the articulation of words. Example : Formal speeches given by ministers, corporate leaders, educationists

3.1.4 Documentary A documentary is a creative work of non-fiction. This includes documentary film, television, radio documentary and documentary photography. Example : Animal Planet, National Geographic

3.1.5 News News is any information or information on current events which is presented by print, broadcast, internet, or word of mouth to a third party or mass audience. News is also the reporting of current information on television and radio, and in the newspapers and magazines. Examples : Business News, BBC News, CNN, Channel News Asia

3.1.6 Multimedia Resources

71

Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation and video delivered to you by computer to other electronic means. Multimedia is not new. It has been used in the classroom for the last decade in the form of overhead projectors, slide shows, filmstrips and coloured chalk.

Exercise 1 1. TELEVISION DOCUMENTARY Watch and listen to a television documentary. Identify the issue/s being discussed and give your personal response. 2. NEWS REPORT Listen to the English news either on television or radio. List three issues that made the headlines today. News 1: __________________________________________________

News 2: __________________________________________________

News 3: ___________________________________________________

Provide reasons why they made the headlines. News 1: ____________________________________________________

News 2 _____________________________________________________

News 3 _____________________________________________________
72

3. MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES

Listen to an English song. Identify and analyse an issue reflected in the song that you have chosen.

___________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

4.0 SPEAKING

What is spoken language? ...the ability to speak a language is synonymous with knowing that language since speech is the most basic means of human communication. Nevertheless, speaking in a second or foreign language has often been viewed as the most demanding of the four skills (Bailey and Savage, 1994)

4.1 ORACY Oral Communication

Oral communication is a vital component of the English language arts curriculumn and provides base for growth in reading, writing and listening abilities. Oracy consists of both verbal and non-verbal communication is culture specific and be aware of the differences that may exist across cultures when students express themselves nonverbally. 73

Oral comunication is a two way process between speaker and listener and involves productive skill of speaking and receptive skill of understanding (or listening with understanding)

Receptive does not imply passive both in listening and reading, language users are actively involved in the process of interpreting and negotiating meanings.

4.1.1Verbal Communication: This involves articulatory organs that produce sounds which compose of words and sentence structure. By incorporating grammatical forms and vocabulary, speakers are able to express the desired meaning.

4.1.2 Non-Verbal Communication Non-Verbal Communication includes a variety of gestures, expressions anmd signalling devices (stress and intonation). Through face to face interaction, a speaker can use a whole range of facial expressions and general body language to help convey the message.

5. 0 Speaking Activities

Listen to and make short notes based on the following lecture of how to conduct a Speaking lesson.

74

 Class, we are going to look at the General outline of a speaking lesson.

Speaking lessons can follow the usual pattern of preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and extension. The teacher can use the preparation step to establish a context for the speaking task (where, when, why, and with whom it will occur) and to initiate awareness of the speaking skill to be targeted (asking for clarification, stressing key words, using reduced forms of words).

In presentation, the teacher can provide learners with a preproduction model that furthers learner comprehension and helps them become more attentive observers of language use.

Practice involves learners in reproducing the targeted structure, usually in a controlled or highly supported manner. Evaluation involves directing attention to the skill being practised and asking learners to monitor and assess their own progress.

Finally, Production consists of activities that ask learners to use the strategy or skill in a different context or authentic communicative situation, or to integrate use of the new skill or strategy with previously acquired ones.

I hope you were able to take note of the various stages in a Speaking lesson.

(Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997; Carter & McCarthy, 1995).

75

Task 1- Pair-work

Get a partner and compare the short notes that you have taken. Then form groups of four and discuss the stages in a Speaking lesson.

Task 2 With the help of a mind-map, present your notes to the class in the form of minilectures.

Exercise 1

Your class is organizing a project for the following semester holidays. The following are some of the suggestions made by the members of the class for the project:

1. Organise an educational trip to an Orang Asli settlement in Cameron Highlands. 2. Participate in a foster family programme with a group of FELDA settlers in Jengka. 76

3. Go on a study trip to Borobudur in Indonesia 4. Conduct free tuition classes for the underprivileged school children near your campus. Think of various ways of agreeing and disagreeing with each of the suggestions above. List them. Support your opinion appropriately.

______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________

6.0

Oral Presentations

For a successful presentation remember the following mnemonic

P A P E R S

P Projection A Articulation P Pronunciation E Enunciation 77

R - Repetition S - Speed

Attributes of Good Communicators

Take turns to talk

Speak quietly

Choose your words carefully, use appropriate language

Think before you speak

Show respect for each other Negotiate try to reach an agreement

Use Standard English

Say what you think

Vary your expression to interest your audience 78 Support and include everyone in the group

Explain your ideas and opinions clearly and fully

Task 3

Read the information on Successful Presentation above and on Attributes of Good Communicators Get the course participants to respond to the topics by giving their opinions in a one-minute speech.

__________________________________________________________________________ ____ 79

__________________________________________________________________________ ____

__________________________________________________________________________ ____

__________________________________________________________________________ ____

__________________________________________________________________________ _

__________________________________________________________________________ __

7.0 Connecting Ideas

Very often connectors are used to link ideas process or procedure.

in a conversation or description of a

Connectors are words or phrases that we use to connect more than one idea. There are two types of connectors :

7.1

Logical connectors

are used to combine words and sentences in logical manners Examples:

7.2 Sequence connectors

80

 are used to connect words and sentences which follow sequence of events and actions. Examples:
Sequence connectors Firstly, secondly.. next, then, after, later Uses To show events happen orderly Examples When I reach my office, first, I have my coffee. Then, I enter my class to teach. Finally, I go home at 1pm.

Exercise 1 Put each group of sentences in order . Use the expression first, next, then and finally, one for each sentence. a. He recovered. b . John got a cold and flu. c. He called the doctor. d. John played football in the rain e. It was a wet and cold evening. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Exercise 2

a. The tea is now ready to be served b. Boil water. c. Pour hot water into the teapot.

1.

2. 3.

d. Prepare tea sachets and a 4. teapot.

81

e. You may add sugar and milk

5.

Answers

a. He recovered. b . John got a cold and flu. c. He went to see a doctor. d. John played football in the rain e. It was a wet and cold evening. Exercise 1 Exercise 2

1. It was a wet and cold evening. 2. John played football in the rain. 3. As a result, John got a cold and flu. 4. So he went to see a doctor. 5. Finally , he recovered.

a. The tea is now ready to be 1. Firstly, boil water served b. Boil water. c. Pour hot water into the teapot. 2. Next, prepare tea sachets and a teapot 3. After that pour hot water into the teapot.

d. Prepare tea sachets and a 4. You may add sugar and milk teapot. e. You may add sugar and milk 5. Finally, the tea is now ready to be served.

Fill in the dialogue with appropriate phrases. Then you may role play the dialogue to practise speaking.

Situation 1 : The waiter doesnt have what the customer wants.

82

You

: Could I have fried noodles, please?

Waiter : _________________________________________

You

: Well, could I have a mushroom omelette?

Waiter : ____________________________________________

You

: Oh, it doesnt matter then. Ill just have a cup of coffee, please.

Situation 2 : Rahim arrives home.

Hasnah : Did you remember to buy me some _________________? Rahim : Oh ________________ I completely forgot.

Hasnah : Well, I hope you remembered to post my letters. Rahim : Hasnah : Rahim : What letters? The ones I gave you this morning. Oh ______________They are still at the office.

Situation 3 : Kikin has just won an essay competition.

Kikin : Papa, Ive won the essay competition! Papa : ____________________ You made it! 83

Kikin : ____________ Papa, for your support and guidance. Papa : Oh well, I know you are good like your papa. Kikin : Oh yes, like they say, like father like daughter.

DON T BE AFRAID TO SPEAK. SPEAK UP AND BE HEARD!!!

TOPIC 3

READING SKILLS

3.0 This unit aims to enhance learners knowledge of reading skills with special emphasis on the Baretts taxonomy. The exercises that follow the explanation should provide some immediate practice in ehnancing your comprehension skills. 3.1 Learning Outcomes: To read critically for meaning and understanding, and give personal response. To recognize and identify different levels of Barretts Taxonomy. To skim and scan a given text To locate authors message and intention. To identify and justify the choice of word(s), To recognize and identify expressions and figure of speech which reflect the message and intention

3.2 Content BARRETTS TAXONOMY

The Barretts Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension

Using Contextual,, Syntactic and

Semantic Clues to
Derive Meaning

Critical Reading Skills and Barretts Taxonomy

Tasks & Exercises

84

Suggested Answers

THE BARRETTS TAXONOMY OF READING COMPREHENSION The Barretts Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension was designed to help teachers formulate comprehension questions or to develop test questions for reading. It classifies skills and orders them according to the degree of complexity. It consists of five categories. The first two categories which are literal comprehension and reorganization deal with facts presented in texts and therefore result in closed questions that have a single correct response. The other three categories that include Inference, Evaluation and Appreciation will always involve the students own background of experience. As a result, it is possible to have as many different but correct responses as there are students present since each brings to school a different background of home, family, friends and learning. These remaining three categories thus lead to the development of open-ended questions.

3.3 CRITICAL READING SKILLS AND BARRETTS TAXONOMY

Critical reading means reading with the goal of finding deep understanding of a material, whether it is fiction or nonfiction. It is the act of analyzing and evaluating what you are reading as you progress, or as you reflect back. Critical reading skills involve your ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize what you read. It is the ability to see relationships of ideas and use them as an aid in reading. Barrett Taxonomy is a good guide to the levels at which we are trying to measure comprehension for a written text. The taxonomy was introduced at a conference in 1968. It is designed originally to assist classroom teachers in developing comprehension questions and / or test questions for reading.In the previous module,WAJ3102, you were introduced to Barrets Taxonomy. You have learnt that it is especially useful for classroom questioning in other content areas as well. As a form of revision we will now read and look closely at Barretts Taxonomy

85

Barretts Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension

1.0 Literal Comprehension 1.1 Recognition 1.1.1 Recognition of Details 1.1.2 Recognition of Main Ideas 1.1.3 Recognition of a Sequence 1.1.4 Recognition of Comparison 1.1.5 Recognition of Cause and Effect Relationships 1.1.6 Recognition of Character Trait 1.2 Recall 1.2.1 Recall of Details 1.2.2 Recall of Main Ideas 1.2.3 Recall of a Sequence 1.2.4 Recall of Comparison 1.2.5 Recall of Cause and Effect Relationships 1.2.6 Recall of Character Traits 2.0 Reorganization 2.1 Classifying 2.2 Outlining 2.3 Summarizing 2.4 Synthesizing 3.0 Inferential Comprehension 3.1 Inferring Supporting Details 3.2 Inferring Main Ideas 3.3 Inferring Sequence 3.4 Inferring Comparisons 3.5 Inferring Cause and Effect Relationships 3.6 Inferring Character Traits 3.7 Predicting Outcomes 86

3.8 Interpreting Figurative Language 4.0 Evaluation 4.1 Judgments of Reality or Fantasy 4.2 Judgments of Fact or Opinion 4.3 Judgments of Adequacy and Validity 4.4 Judgments of Appropriateness 4.5 Judgments of Worth, Desirability and Acceptability 5.0 Appreciation 5.1 Emotional Response to the Content 5.2 Identification with Characters or Incidents 5.3 Reactions to the Authors Use of Language 5.4 Imagery

Task 1 Read the text below and formulate at least two comprehension questions for each of the categories of the Barretts Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension. In the Car Bernadette M. Smyth I steered through fantastic streets of boisterous traffic, past glittering buildings, and footpaths that moved with shoppers. I beeped the horn when I saw Mrs Sweeney. Hop in! I shouted. The towns mad today, she said, getting into the car. Packed! Theres hundreds in town. Thousands more like. Millions even Id say theres easily a million people doing their shopping today. Mrs Sweeney tightened her headscarf. Plenty of groceries there, I said. Sure havent I ten mouths to feed, Petulia? Ten kids? Thats nothing Ive fifteen. Humph! If I only had fifteen children Id be laughing- Ive twenty you know. You said ten! No, no, Petulia, ten at the moment; John-Joe, Jimmy, Jamesy, Jemmy, Mary- Concepta, Concepta-Mary, Penelope, Agnes, Ignatius, and Alphonsus, are away on their holidays. I went back to the steering. Hows Paddys leg? I enquired. 87 Gone. Gone? Chopped off! And how does he manage?

3.4

READ FOR MEANING AND UNDERSTANDING A VARIETY OF TEXTS

Reading for meaning focuses on five main areas namely: 3.4.1Main idea The main idea is the summary of essential points of the paragraph. The main idea of a paragraph can often be substituted with a topic sentence with controlling ideas. 3.4.2. Inference Inferencing is a reading skill in which you use observations, prior knowledge and experiences, and details from the text to make connections and come up with ideas. 3.4.3 Sequence Sequencing in reading is to be considered when there is an order of incidents and actions in the selection. A sequence will be constituted only when order of occurrence is specifically required. 3.4.4Compare and contrast 88

Comparing and contrasting is a reading skill where you can find the similarities and differences between items, characters, times and places that is stated in the selection 3.4.5 Cause and effect The skill of looking at happenings or actions in the selection where you can identify the causes of a problem or issue and the effects in an orderly way.

3.5 Now let us look at what text is and its variety.

Text is any piece of writing. This could be a letter, an email, a novel, a poem, a recipe, a note, instructions for D.I.Y, an article in a newspaper or magazine, writing on a webpage or an advert. All of these examples can be called texts.

When you are reading or writing any text, think about the purpose of the text or why it has been written.

3.2.1 What might the purpose of a text be? An advert might be trying to persuade you to buy something. A letter from school might be to inform you about something. A novel might describe somewhere or someone to you. A car manual might instruct you how to do something to your car.

Depending on the purpose of the text, different methods will be used to get the message across to the reader.

Exercise 1
89

Read each of the following paragraphs carefully. Look up any unfamiliar words if necessary. Then choose the title that best describes the main idea of each.

1.

Universities are a microcosm of society. But they are more than a reflection or mirror; they are a leading indicator. In universities, an environment where students live, eat, and study together, racial and cultural differences come together in the closest possible way. Of all American institutions, perhaps only the military brings people of such different backgrounds into more intimate contact. With coeducation now a reality in colleges, and with the confident emergence of homosexual groups, the American campus is now sexually democratized as well. University leaders see it as a useful laboratory experiment in training young people for a multicultural habitat. Michael Sovern, president of Columbia, observes, "I like to think that we are leading society by grappling earnestly and creatively with the challenges posed by diversity."

--Dinesh D'Souza, Illiberal Education 1. The best title for this paragraph is A. "The University Environment" B. "Sexual Democratization on American College Campuses" C. "The University vs.the Military" D. "The University as a Microcosm of Society"

2.

Marriage was not designed as a mechanism for providing friendship, erotic experience, romantic love, personal fulfillment, continuous psychotherapy, or recreation. The Western European family was not designed to carry a lifelong load of highly emotional romantic freight. Given its present structure, it simply has to fail when asked to do so. The very idea of an irrevocable contract obligating the parties concerned to a lifetime of romantic effort is utterly absurd.

90

--Mervyn Cadwallader, "Marriage as a Wretched Institution," Atlantic Monthly

3. The best title for this paragraph is A. "Unrealistic Expectations in Western Marriages" B. "The Failure of Romance" C. "Why Marriages Are Doomed to Failure" D. "Marriage and Romance"

3.

The baby mastering the skills that lead to establishment of the upright posture behaves in the same way as the novice skier. He feels compelled to repeat the activity hundreds of times until he has mastered the skill and mastered his anxiety. He often reveals that he is having difficulty in "unwinding" when we put him to bed for his nap or for the night, and if you peek into his room while he is settling down for sleep (or unsettling down for sleep), you may see him, groggy and cross-eyed with fatigue, still climbing and pulling himself upright, collapsing momentarily with weariness, then exerting himself for another climb. He repeats this over and over until finally he cannot lift himself even once more and succumbs to sleep. One set of parents discovered their eight-month-old daughter climbing in her sleep on several occasions during this mastery period. At eleven or twelve at night they could hear soft sounds in the baby's room and upon entering would find the baby standing in her crib, dazed and dimly conscious, too sleepy to protest when she was put down in her bed again. When the art of standing was perfected, the baby gave up practicing in her sleep.

--Selma H. Fraiberg, The Magic Years

The best title for this paragraph is A. "Babies' Nighttime Activities" B. "How a Baby Masters the Skill of Standing" 91

C. "The Sleep Habits of Babies" D. "Practice Makes Perfect"

3.6 USE CONTEXTUAL, SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC CLUES TO DERIVE MEANING When reading a passage for the first time, you have to make an effort to cope with unfamiliar or difficult words that you come across. You should first try to guess the meaning of the words rather than look them up in a dictionary. One way to find out the meaning of unfamiliar words is through the use of context. The context in reading refers to the overall meaning of the text. The context also refers to the surrounding words in a sentence that gives us clues about the words we read. The syntactic clues give us the word order clues where the information implicit in the grammatical structures of the language is utilized. The semantic clues give us the meaning clues where the reader recalls his own experiences and utilizes his own conceptual background in order to bring meaning to his/her reading. Example 1: Read the two sentences. (a) The hungry spider __________ the juicy fly. [ With knowledge of spiders and flies, (that is context) the reader would be likely to predict that the missing word is ate.] 92

(b) The loving mother __________ the hungry baby. [ With knowledge, of mothers and babies (that is context) the reader would be likely to predict that the missing word is fed.

Exercise 2
Write the meaning for each of the nonsense words by reading the contexts. 1. Bultums Bultums are useful to wear when the weather is cold. Some bultums are waterproof. There are different types of bultums for different occasions. Some houses have a special cupboard near the front door where visitors can hang their bultums Bultum means: _______________________________

2.

Kester Mother gets kester when we are late home for dinner. The teacher was very kester when a student broke the computer. As people get older, they usually learn to control their kester moment. A kester person does not think as clearly as a non-kester person Kester means: _______________________________

3.7

READ AND MAKE INFERENCE

Making Inferences is a tool that takes us beyond what is literally on the page, expanding it to open up new meanings and personal connections. When we 93

infer, we take statements in the text and read between the lines to figure out what an author is hinting at or to draw our own conclusions. For instance, if we are reading an article about a hospital closing, we would probably ask ourselves why. The reason might not be directly stated in the article, but from other facts in the article as well as what we know about where it is located, we might infer that the hospital was not getting enough funding to stay open.

3.4.1

More tips to help you to infer

Question the text, argue with it, or raise doubts about it. Show how to include your own ideas when you restate the text. Make an inference by connecting two or more details from different places in the text. Use the text as your support to make an argument or try to persuade someone. Make inferences as you reflect on the text after reading. Example 1: When Sarah went on stage to receive the best actress award for her role as Tun Fatimah in her Primary School play, her mothers eyes were brimming with tears. The stated meaning contains the following information: (a) Sarah received her best actress award on stage. (b) She played the role of Tun Fatimah. (c) She was still in Primary School. (d) Her mother had tears in her eyes

The pieces of information that are not stated but can be interpreted or inferred are as follows: 94

(a) Sarah was rewarded for her fine acting. (b) Sarah was still below 13 years old. (c) Sarahs mother witnessed her daughter receiving the award. (d) She was proud of her. (e) Her daughters achievement caused her to shed tears of joy.

3 .8

DISTINGUISH FACT FROM OPINION

A fact is objective information that can be checked or proved to be true and not a statement about the future. An opinion is a statement that cannot be proven to be true or false and is ones personal belief, idea, or feeling about a subject. Clues to help you identify facts and opinions. Facts The use of dates and year Opinions The use of adjectives which show your point of view or emotions The use of comparison words which show a comparison between two or more things The use of other words which show frequency, possibility, advisability and necessity The use of phrases which show a belief, a suggestion, a feeling, or an opinion

The use of statistic/figures/precise numbers or quantities

The use of definitions

When stating a geographical or scientific fact

3.5.1 Lets look at some examples. These are facts because they are concrete. 1. 2. The house was painted on November 18, 1999. Today is Saturday. 95

3.

My son had a temperature of one hundred and two degrees this morning.

However, these facts can be changed to opinions when we add a belief or view. 1. 2. The house was painted recently on November 18, 1999, so it looks as good as new. Today is Saturday and Mark always sleeps in on Saturdays, so that is why he is late for the game. There was no way for me to go to school because my son had a temperature of one hundred and two degrees this morning.

3.

Exercise 3 Read the following statements. Determine whether each statement is a fact or opinion. What are some of the signal words?

No. 1

Statements The cerebral cortex or brain is characterized by a division into halves termed hemispheres which are connected by tissue called the corpus callosum. I think it is more interesting to watch a movie than to watch football at the stadium. The majority of drug addicts are between the ages 12 35 years. I believe that kids skip school because teachers are unsympathetic. As a matter of fact, oil spills from factories have been found to be related to the death of marine life. In my view, men are better at raising children than women. It is a matter of opinion that all facts are scientific

Fact / Opinion

96

facts. 8 According to the national weather service, there is a 90 per cent chance of rain today. Therefore, it will probably rain today.

Task Read an interview from a magazine or newspaper. Try to identify whether the speakers are giving their opinions or facts?

3.9

IDENTIFY SHIFT IN ARGUMENT

Transitions are words and phrases used by writers to indicate specific relationships between ideas and to create coherence or logical connection between ideas and to create a coherence or logical connection between the ideas in a passage.

Lets look at some examples. The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph. I dont wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider 97

than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular. Stephen Jay Gould, Were Dinosaurs Dumb? The following are also some of the words and phrases to indicate transitions in a paragraph or passage. 3.6.1 To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too 3.6.2 To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate 3.6.3To compare: also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly 3.6.4 To contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet 3.6.5 To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up 3.6.6 To show time: after, afterwards, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while 3.6.7 To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)

3.6.8 To indicate logical relationship: 98

accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus

(adapted from Diana Hacker, A Writers Reference) Task Choose one argumentative essay and identify the shift in arguments or ideas in the text.

Exercise 4 A. Read the following paragraph and circle the transition words that show time. You can make your own cards to celebrate special events. First, gather the materials you need: construction paper, scissors, crayons or markers, and glue. Second, fold a piece of construction paper to create a card that has a front, a back, and an inside. Cut out interesting shapes from more construction paper, and glue the shapes to the front and back of your card. You may also draw colorful pictures on the front and back of the card. Finally, write a brief message inside the card, and sign your name. Now you're ready to give your card to someone special.

B. 1. 2.

Read the sentences below and circle the transition words that compare or contrast. I was anxious to leave. However, we had to wait until Uncle Pete arrived. Mother told us to hurry. Otherwise, we all would have been caught in the rain.

3. I make my sandwich in the same way that Shawna does. We both use food that is peanut free because of our food allergies. 4. I asked about the homework, but neither Todd nor Antonio knew what had been assigned. 99

5.

Even though it was very cold, Mary Beth did not wear a jacket.

Exercise Transition words have been left out in the following paragraph. Select appropriate words from the list below, and write them in the blanks. There can be more than one word that fits in some blanks. Select the one that you think fits best. Meanwhile first while Once upon a time through as a result of next Under beside then

__(1) __ there lived a family of bears in a lovely wooded area. Their home was __(2)__ some trees __(3)__ a small stream. One day __(4)__ the bears were not at home, a little girl came to the house. __(5)__, she knocked on the door. __(6)__, even though no one answered her knock, she entered the house. __(7)__, she ate some of the bears' food, and she napped on one of their beds. __(8)__, the bears returned home. They were surprised to see their door open. Their roars woke up the girl, and she fearfully ran from the house, __(9)__ the woods, and back to her own home. __(10)__ her experiences, she never again went into the woods alone.

100

3.10 IDENTIFY EMOTIONALLY-LADEN WORDS

Authors often write not only to communicate but also to arouse some emotion or make readers respond to their ideas or suggestions. Authors select words for their emotional, suggestive meanings to create vivid images. Carefully chosen words can be very effective in accomplishing these purposes, and a careful reader can recognize how words are used for certain effects. Lets look at some examples. These are words found in a text about adoption. The writer is very careful to use positive or neutral words so to sound politically correct and not offensive.

Birthparent not real parent Biological parent not natural parent Biological or birth father not real father Birth child not own child My child not adopted child, own child Born to unmarried parents not illegitimate Terminate parental rights not give up Make adoption plan not give away Waiting child not Adoptable / available child Making contact with not reunion Parent not adoptive parent

Task What other words or phrases can you think of that are emotionally laden words? List them.

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3.11 IDENTIFY WRITERS MOOD, TONE, BIAS, PURPOSE OR POINT OF VIEW

While an authors purpose is closely related to the main idea and can often be inferred from the main idea and the way in which the details are presented, the tone of a piece of writing is a little more illusive. The tone refers to the authors attitude, mood or feeling reflected in the writing. The tone also suggests the authors purpose to criticize, to persuade, to sympathise and to appreciate. Below is an example of how you may infer a writer's tone or attitude: "...Had the researchers spoken to anyone who has witnessed the ravages of the Green Revolution, they would have learned that their basic premise was dismissed as simplistic nonsense years ago.'

(an

extract

from

Beware

Outbreak

of

Mad

Scientist

Disease)

3.8.1 Tone and Attitude The use of such a negative word like "ravages" suggests the writer is highly critical of the usefulness of the Green Revolution, and his dismissive tone as exemplified by the use of the phrase "simplistic nonsense" indicates his low opinion of the researchers' achievement

Below is an example of how you may infer a writer's tone or attitude: "...Had the researchers spoken to anyone who has witnessed the ravages of the Green Revolution, they would have learned that their basic premise was dismissed as simplistic nonsense years ago.'

(an extract from Beware Outbreak of Mad Scientist Disease)

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Exercise 1. What is the writer's attitude towards pure scientists? Find five words/phrases in this passage that indicate the writer's attitude. Pure scientists have by and large been dim-witted about engineers and applied science. They couldn't recognise that many of the problems were as intellectually exacting as pure problems, and that many of the solutions were as satisfying and beautiful. Their instinct -perhaps sharpened in this country by the passion to find a new snobbism wherever possible, and to invent one if it doesn't exist -- was take it for granted that applied science was an occupation of second-rate minds.

2. What is tone of the excerpt below? What devices does he use to show his attitude to the government of Singapore, caning and Americans who support the caning?

Does he try to present his own inferences as facts?

What kind of person does he want to be seen as?

What kind of person do you infer him to be?

The verb "torture" is defined in the Webster's Tenth Collegiate Dictionary as "the infliction of intense pain (as from burning, crushing or wounding) to punish, coerce or afford sadistic pleasure". The dictatorship of Singapore has found an American teenager guilty of spraypainting cars and sentenced him to four months in prison, a $2,000 fine -- and torture. Singapore's torture of choice is flogging by rattan cane which elicits the screams satisfying to the torturer and scars the torturee physically and mentally for life. Torture is an act of savagery as old as civilisation. Demosthenes described it as the surest means of obtaining evidence. Tomas de Torquenada issued detailed instructions for its use in the Spanish Inquisitions. But now civilised nations have a Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that declares, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment." The United Nations has a "Convention Against Torture". The government of Singapore stands aloof from the universal condemnation. Singapore's dictator is actually proud of his country's reputation for keeping order by inflicting pain. Moreover, his diplomats in the United States report that many Americans endorse the lashing to be meted out to the young offender. That some people in 2

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

America thoughtlessly espouse torture is undeniable. One sap on the street in Washington told a New York Times reporter: If you've ever had your antenna ripped off your car, you can sympathise with the government of Singapore. Lash him."

I have had more than a few antennas ripped off my car, and a few swastikas sprayed on my house, and have felt a surge of mindless fury at the perpetrators. But I have also seen a Kurdish patriot crippled for life by one of Saddam Hussein's tortures, and witnessed the misdirected selfloathing on the face of a rape victim, and I don't think any person or government has any right to inflict any physical pain on another human being.

(From The New York Times, 1994 "The Caning of Michael Fay, by William Safire)

3.12 UNDERSTAND THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE AND ITS EFFECT ON MEANING Writers sometimes use figurative language to express a point or to clarify an idea through imaginative comparisons or with words used in unusual, suggestive or symbolic ways. Figurative language often enhances meaning by representing abstract ideas in more concrete, vivid images. To understand figurative expressions, you must first recognize words are being used figuratively and are not meant to be taken literally. You must infer what the figurative expression means in the context of the sentence. There are many types of figurative language used in writing, but the most frequently used are similes, metaphors, hyperboles, personification, symbolism and irony. 3.12.1 Simile A simile uses the words like or as to compare one object or idea with another to suggest they are alike. Example: busy as a bee

3.12.2 Personification A figure of speech in which human characteristics are given to an animal or an object. Example: My teddy bear gave me a hug.

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

3.12.3 Hyperbole An exaggeration that is so dramatic that no one would believe the statement is true. Tall tales are hyperboles. Example: He was so hungry, he ate that whole cornfield for lunch, stalks and all.

3.12.4 Symbol A thing (could be an object, person, situation or action) which stands for something else more abstract. Example: a flag is a symbol of our country 3.12.5 Irony It is a figure of speech when an expression used is the opposite of the thought in the speaker's mind, thus conveying a meaning that contradicts the literal definition. Example: The Road Not Taken: Verbal irony - the speaker knows he will tell the old story "with a sigh" of a choice that "made all the difference."

Exercise

Read the lyrics below and identify the figurative language.

Breath (2am) 2 AM and she calls me 'cause I'm still awake, "Can you help me unravel my latest mistake? I don't love him. Winter just wasn't my season" Yeah we walk through the doors, so accusing their eyes Like they have any right at all to criticize, Hypocrites. You're all here for the very same reason Chorus: 'Cause you can't jump the track, we're like cars on a cable And life's like an hourglass, glued to the table No one can find the rewind button, girl. So cradle your head in your hands 4

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

And breathe... just breathe, Oh breathe, just breathe May he turned 21 on the base at Fort Bliss "Just a day" he said down to the flask in his fist, "Ain't been sober, since maybe October of last year." Here in town you can tell he's been down for a while, But, my God, it's so beautiful when the boy smiles, Wanna hold him. Maybe I'll just sing about it. Chorus There's a light at each end of this tunnel, You shout 'cause you're just as far in as you'll ever be out And these mistakes you've made, you'll just make them again If you only try turning around. 2 AM and I'm still awake, writing a song If I get it all down on paper, it's no longer inside of me, Threatening the life it belongs to And I feel like I'm naked in front of the crowd Cause these words are my diary, screaming out loud And I know that you'll use them, however you want to But you can't jump the track, we're like cars on a cable, And life's like an hourglass, glued to the table No one can find the rewind button now Sing it if you understand. and breathe, just breathe woah breathe, just breathe, Oh breathe, just breathe, Oh breathe, just breathe.

3.13 IDENTIFY AND DIFFERENTIATE IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS AND METAPHORS

Idiomatic Expressions Language is full of idiomatic expressions or idioms. They can be just one word or a group of words. If you try to understand an idiomatic expression literally, in most cases, it will make very little sense. The objective of an idiom is to try to develop a new meaning that goes beyond the literal significance. Idiomatic expressions have different forms and structures. They can be short with only one word or they can be long using combinations of words.

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Bill has two hands, a right hand and a left hand. (literal sentence) Bill is an old hand in the store. (This means that Bill has a lot experience in the store. An old hand refers to a person with experience.) John is a nut. (John is crazy.) Bob has the bull by the horns. (Bob has the situation under control.)

3.13.1 Metaphor The metaphor states a fact or draws a verbal picture by the use of comparison. A simile would say you are like something; a metaphor is more positive - it says you are something. Example: You are what you eat.

Exercise Choose the correct meaning. A. Animal Idioms

1. Wow! It's raining cats and dogs today! I wish I'd brought my umbrella to school! a. I forgot my umbrella today. b. It's raining heavily. c. Cats and dogs are falling from the sky. 2. When I told my mom I would be home around 2 am, she had a cow! a. My mom bought a baby cow. b. My mom is really strange. c. My mom was really upset. 3. Jean: How did you know it was my birthday today? Susan: Oh, a little birdie told me! a. Jean told Susan it was her birthday. 6

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

b. An unnamed person told Susan about Jean's birthday. c. Susan told Jean it was her birthday. 4. Frank: Why didn't your brother ride the roller coaster with us? Sam: Oh, he's such a scaredy cat! He won't get on any fast ride. a. Sam's brother is afraid to ride the roller coaster. b. Sam's brother is a cat. c. Sam's brother didn't go to the roller coaster. B. Body Idiom Idiom You did it. You have to face the music. Yes. You hit the nail on the head. Meaning You have to memorize it. You have to accept the consequences of your actions. You're absolutely right. You don't agree with each other.

You two don't see eye to eye. You have to learn it by heart.

Task Go online and try to collect more idioms. http://www.idiomconnection.com 20/10/2009 http://knowgramming.com/metaphors/metaphor_chapters/examples.htm 27/10/2009

3.14

READ CRITICALLY AND RESPOND TO TEXT

Critical reading is a skill which can be developed through practices, such as:

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

a. Taking notes of the text's main ideas and adding your own responsive comments. b. Talking to others about what you have read. c. Relating a given text to similar or contrasting themes. d. Explaining what the text means and making it intelligible. This will help you to see the underlying, unstated assumptions e. Asking yourself: "Is it possible to disagree with any of this?" f. Asking yourself: 'How can I convince my peers that I understand what this is about?'

Exercise Read the following paragraph and answer the questions that follow. In ancient times people believed in the predictions and advice of astrologers because astrology was part and parcel of their magical world view. They looked upon celestial objects as abodes or omens of the Gods and, thus, intimately connected with events here on earth; they had no concept of the vast distances from the earth to the planets and stars. Now that these distances can and have been calculated, we can see how infinitesimally small are the gravitational and other effects produced by the distant planets and the far more distant stars. It is simply a mistake to imagine that the forces exerted by stars and planets at the moment of birth can in any way shape our futures. Neither is it true that the position of distant heavenly bodies make certain days or periods more favorable to particular kinds of action, or that the sign under which one was born determines one's compatibility or incompatibility with other people. --Bart J. Bok, "Objections to Astrology," The Humanist
/usr/w eb/home/m /usr/w eb/home/m /usr/w eb/home/m /usr/w eb/home/m 1

1.

This paragraph is a _____________. A. narration B. description C. exposition D. persuasion

2. Which of the following can we accurately infer? Astrology developed in the ancient world largely because

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

A. people believed that the stars and planets were deities B. it was part of their traditional mythology C. they had a desire to explain what they didn't understand D. they were scientifically ignorant

3.

The author's attitude toward astrology can be best described as A. unbelieving B. angry C. sympathetic D. laudatory

Bibliography
Johnson, K. (n.d.). Critical thinking and questioning. Retrieved from www.panamatesol.org/yahoo_site_admin/.../kitti_johnson.1125143.doc The Barretts xaxonomy of cognitive and affective dimensions of reading comprehension. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.vdac.de/vdac/index.php?option=com_docmen&task=doc

Suggested Answers

(a)

READ FOR MEANING AND UNDERSTANDING OF A VARIETY OF TEXT Exercise 1. C 2. A 3. B 9

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

(b)

USE CONTEXTUAL, SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC CLUES TO DERIVE MEANING Exercise 1. jacket 2. Temperamental

(c)

DISTINGUISH FACTS FROM OPINION Exercise 1. Fact 5. Fact 2. Opinion 6. Opinion 3. Fact 7. Opinion 4. Opinion 8. Opinion

(d)

IDENTIFY SHIFT IN ARGUMENT

A. Read the following paragraph carefully. Then, locate and circle each transition word that shows time. You can make your own cards to celebrate special events. First, gather the materials you need: construction paper, scissors, crayons or markers, and glue. Second, fold a piece of construction paper to create a card that has a front, a back, and an inside. Cut out interesting shapes from more construction paper, and glue the shapes to the front and back of your card. You may also draw colorful pictures on the front and back of the card. Finally, write a brief message inside the card, and sign your name. Now you're ready to give your card to someone special.

B. Read the following sentences carefully. Then, locate and circle each transition word that compares or contrasts. 1. However 2. Otherwise 3. 4. 5. that is but Even though.

10

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Once upon a time under beside while First Then Next Meanwhile through As a result of

(e) IDENTIFY WRITERS MOOD, TONE, BIAS, PURPOSE OR POINT OF VIEW

1.

Pure scientists have by and large been dim-witted about engineers and applied science. They couldn't recognise that many of the problems were as intellectually exacting as pure problems, and that many of the solutions were as satisfying and beautiful. Their instinct -perhaps sharpened in this country by the passion to find a new snobbism wherever possible, and to invent one if it doesn't exist -- was take it for granted that applied science was an occupation of second-rate minds. (The writers attitude is very sarcastic, arrogant and condemning. Yes, the writer is trying to convince his readers through wit.)

2.

The verb "torture" is defined in the Webster's Tenth Collegiate Dictionary as "the infliction of intense pain (as from burning, crushing or wounding) to punish, coerce or afford sadistic pleasure". The dictatorship of Singapore has found an American teenager guilty of spraypainting cars and sentenced him to four months in prison, a $2,000 fine -- and torture. Singapore's torture of choice is flogging by rattan cane which elicits the screams satisfying to the torturer and scars the torturee physically and mentally for life. Torture is an act of savagery as old as civilisation. Demosthenes described it as the surest means of obtaining evidence. Tomas de Torquenada issued detailed instructions for its use in the Spanish Inquisitions. But now civilised nations have a Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that declares, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment." The United Nations has a "Convention Against Torture". The government of Singapore stands aloof from the universal condemnation. Singapore's dictator is actually proud of his country's 11

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

reputation for keeping order by inflicting pain. Moreover, his diplomats in the United States report that many Americans endorse the lashing to be meted out to the young offender. That some people in America thoughtlessly espouse torture is undeniable. One sap on the street in Washington told a New York Times reporter: If you've ever had your antenna ripped off your car, you can sympathise with the government of Singapore. Lash him." I have had more than a few antennas ripped off my car, and a few swastikas sprayed on my house, and have felt a surge of mindless fury at the perpetrators. But I have also seen a Kurdish patriot crippled for life by one of Saddam Hussein's tortures, and witnessed the misdirected self-loathing on the face of a rape victim, and I don't think any person or government has any right to inflict any physical pain on another human being. (From The New York Times, 1994 "The Caning of Michael Fay, by William Safire) (The writer does not agree with caning. He includes concrete evidence and personal experience to convince the readers. He is trying to infer himself as a person who is against cruelty.) (f) UNDERSTAND THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE AND ITS EFFECT ON MEANING

Chorus: 'Cause you can't jump the track, we're like cars on a cable - simile And life's like an hourglass, glued to the table personification / simile No one can find the rewind button, girl. So cradle your head in your hands - personification And breathe... just breathe, Oh breathe, just breathe Chorus There's a light at each end of this tunnel, - metaphor You shout 'cause you're just as far in as you'll ever be out - simile And these mistakes you've made, you'll just make them again If you only try turning around. 2 AM and I'm still awake, writing a song If I get it all down on paper, it's no longer inside of me, Threatening the life it belongs to And I feel like I'm naked in front of the crowd - simile Cause these words are my diary, screaming out loud - personification And I know that you'll use them, however you want to (g) IDENTIFY AND DIFFERENTIATE IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS AND METAPHORS

Exercise A. Animal Idioms 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. A

12

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

B.

Body Idioms Idiom Meaning You have to memorize it. You have to accept the consequences of your actions. You're absolutely right. You don't agree with each other.

You did it. You have to face the music. Yes. You hit the nail on the head.

You two don't see eye to eye. You have to learn it by heart.

(h)

READ CRITICALLY AND RESPOND TO TEXT

Exercise 1. C 2. B

13

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

TOPIC 4

Writing for Different Text Types

4.0 This topic intends to assist course participants to be aware of different types of report writing and that they may be able to write these reports accurately. Course participants will also be aware of how to write various types of summary, formal and informal letters effectively.

4.1 Learning Outcomes

Study different text organisations for reports and discuss the purpose/objective, language used and audience Write effectively different kinds of reports namely newspaper reports, events, minutes of meeting and writing reports based on graphs or charts Write different types of summary effectively based on guidelines given Identify the format of letter writing Use correct and appropriate language, tone and format in letter writing Assess own language progress through self and peer evaluation

4.2 Content

WRITING DIFFERENT TEXT TYPES

4.2.1 Writing Reports

4.2.2 Writing Different Types of Summary

4.3.3 Writing Formal and Informal Letters

14

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

4.2.1 WRITING REPORTS

Descriptions This form of writing is used to organise and record information Its purpose is to describe or classify the way things are or appear to be

Format & Style This genre begins with a general statement. Reports then move on to being more specific and technical in nature They describe certain qualities, functions, habits and behaviours, for example, Lift is produced because of the shape of an aircraft wing. Air takes longer to travel over the upper surface of the curved wing. This causes a difference in pressure between the top and the bottom of the wing. Uses the Present Tense. Descriptive language is used that is both factual and accurate. Reports use action verbs such, using the first person (I, we).

Examples Newspapers, schools, academic research, etc.

i. Reporting Sports

Main Objective Recognise bias and objectivity, distinguishing facts from hypotheses, theories or opinions.

Additional focus Analyse the overall structure of a text to identify how key ideas are developed. 15

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Think about How does fact differ from opinion? Fact is truth, reality, information that is verifiable Opinion is a view, belief or an assessment Fact: Ibrox Park, Glasgow, 70,000 people had assembled, on a Saturday afternoon Opinion: a shocking accident, the scene was one of wild disorder One cannot reasonably disagree with a fact It is reasonable to disagree with an opinion

Make a list of words nouns, verbs, adjectives that could be used in a newspaper report on a football game or any other sport that has mass appeal, for example, spectator, crowd, cheers and jeers, roar, applause

Read and understand Read Grandstand Calamity at Ibrox Park and identify parts of the text that are out of date. How would you write this report to appeal to present-day readers? Would you o o o o Make the sentences and paragraphs shorter? Edit the language to make it more direct, simple, precise? Change the headline to one more dramatic? Introduce subheadings where meaningful?

Writing Task

You have just watched a very important team game at the local stadium. Write a report to be published in the sports section of a newspaper.

In your report, clearly show What happened during the game How the spectators behaved and The outcome of the event

16

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Disaster at Ibrox

The following report is from the Daily Telegraph on Monday, 7th April, 1902. It describes a tragedy at Ibrox during a Scotland-England football game the previous Saturday. Twenty-six people were killed and hundreds injured when a section of the stand collapsed.

Grandstand Calamity at Ibrox Park

IBROX PARK, GLASGOW, was on Saturday afternoon the scene of a shocking accident, involving the loss of many lives and injuries to over 100 people. To witness the annual Association football match between England and Scotland fully 70000 people had assembled there, but as the ground is arranged to accommodate 80 000, the presence even of so vast a gathering as that of Saturday occasioned no anxiety.

play between the forcing of a corner kick and the taking of it. Within a few minutes the scene was one of wild disorder, the police being quite over-powered in their endeavours to keep people off the playing area. Spectators dashed madly across the field and, almost before it could be realized, there must have been 10000 people in the middle of the ground. The white shirts of the English players could still be distinguished, but, clad in dark blue, the Scotsmen were at once swallowed up, and very soon the players on Before the start of the game the pressure both sides made their way to the pavilion. For became so great that the spectators began to fully 20 minutes the field remained in the clamber over the iron railing in front of the possession of the crowd. huge uncovered stand. In this rush several people were hurt and received medical attention. The injuries so far were few and not Comparatively few people, apart from those on very severe. The invading spectators, the stand, knew what had happened to cause however, spread out in all directions, crowding such an uncontrollable rush. What had up to the goal line and the touchline on one occurred was this. On the highest part of the side of the ground. It seemed as if no play stand a portion of the planking had proved would be possible, but the efforts of the police unequal to the strain to which it was being eventually resulted in the people being driven subjected, and, giving way, had precipitated back to the cinder path. the spectators standing there to the earth. One or two people were killed outright; others received such terrible injuries that they The game was accordingly commenced, and succumbed during the evening; and a number 17

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

had been in progress some seven or eight had their limbs fractured or sustained serious minutes, when from the uncovered stand internal damage. people swarmed on to the field in thousands, the rush being so tremendous that it stopped

Report Language

1.

Write down two facts and two opinions from the passage.

Facts :

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

Opinions:

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

18

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

2.

The words below are all used in the extract and now seem rather dated. Replace them with words you think would be more likely to appear in a modern newspaper report.

calamity

_____________________________________________________

occasioned

_____________________________________________________

spectators

_____________________________________________________

commenced

_____________________________________________________

disorder

_____________________________________________________

endeavours

_____________________________________________________

clad

_____________________________________________________

precipitated

_____________________________________________________

succumbed

_____________________________________________________

fractured

_____________________________________________________

19

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

WRITING FRAME

The difference between a fact and an opinion is that

Here are some facts from the passage about the Ibrox disaster

20

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Here are some opinions

Some examples of dated expressions used in the passage are

I replaced them with these modern expressions

21

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Here is the first paragraph of a report of the tragedy in the style of a modern newspaper

22

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

ii. Newspaper Article News Item

The purpose of a newspaper article is to present the news clearly and objectively. A reporter must state the facts, rather than his or her own views. A newspaper must also be very careful not to print anything libelous. This could result in the newspaper being taken to court and sued. A journalist must be particularly careful when writing about crimes. People who have been arrested are suspects, since they have not yet been proved guilty. They should not be called robbers, murderers, etc. No facts should be given that cannot be substantiated (given substance, proved). As well as being accurate in content and neutral in tone, newspaper articles must be interesting. Pay particular attention to the beginning of the story, so that people want to read on.

Model

SOGO FIRE KILLS TWO Summarise the most important Two people were killed and 15 injured when fire swept facts first through the two basements of the Sogo Department Store in Causeway Bay yesterday.

Use adjectives to add detail

The up-market Japanese-owned store, which opened only three years ago, was packed with customers attracted by the New Years sales. At about 7.15 p.m. a fire started in a store-room on the lower ground floor.

Use quotations to supply further The fire spread very quickly because of all the cooking oil detail in that area of the store, said Chan, 19, a part-time cook in the fast-food area.

Use direct speech to add tension There was absolute chaos, said Mrs. Mak Shukhan, a and excitement Taikoo Shing housewife, who was in the basement at that time. Everything happened so quickly. People started running and shouting and smoke began to fill the air. The stampede for the escalators was frightening. Im surprised 23

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

more people werent trampled to death.

The fire brigade arrived at about 7.25. At first it was difficult for them to get their men and equipment down to the fire because of the crush of people. By 7.30 the upper basement was also ablaze, and the fire was upgraded to third alarm.

State the official position

The Senior Divisional Fire Officer (Wanchai), Mr Hu Waishing, said that he was afraid for a while that the fire would spread to the ground floor. Basically we started to flood the basements as the quickest way to put out the fire. Luckily, although the flames spread quickly, there was not very much inflammable material around. The stores sprinkler system was also of some help despite its being slow to start working.

Standard formula for such reports

When firemen finally penetrated to the lower-basement, two badly burnt corpses were found. Fifteen other people were injured in the stampede or suffered burns. They were taken to Tang Shiu Kin Hospital; where seven were treated and discharged. Four people were kept in for observation and four were transferred to the Burns Unit of Queen Mary Hospital. The dead have not yet been named.

Avoid making judgements. Its not The cause of the fire has not yet been established. The your job and it could land you in police investigating the case have refused at this stage to court. rule out arson, although faulty wiring in the store-room is considered a more likely cause. Add any additional facts that are This is the second fire in a department store in Hong Kong relevant this year.

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Style and Content

1.

Avoid the word I. Only a few top journalists are paid to give their views rather than to present the facts. Be impersonal. Give a lot of details peoples ages, the numbers involved, the precise times. A newspaper is usually concerned with what happened yesterday. Remember this, and dont just write a short story! Use a fairly exciting style. You are trying to interest the reader. Use adjectives freely a huge explosion, an enormous crowd, dazzling sunlight, etc. Help your readers to imagine what happened and to feel some of the emotions involved. For example, dont write , Mr Chan said . Instead, write something like Mr Chan, with tears in his eyes, begged the kidnappers to return his daughter. Use direct speech. Include short quotations from witnesses, spokesmen, etc. Use short, punchy paragraphs. Give any relevant statistics and information. Your job is to provide the reader with the facts so that he or she can form their own judgement.

2. 3.

4.

5. 6. 7.

Vocabulary The following words and phrases are often used in newspaper articles. a spokesman for witness passer-by established the cause investigations are proceeding in a statement the government said an inquiry will be held Hospital : admitted treated discharged

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

certified dead on arrival in a fair / serious/ critical condition

Writing task

Write a news item using the following elements

Accident involving a bus and a lorry

__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________

Anyone killed or injured?

__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________

More information: time, place, was the bus crowded? If so, why? What happened? (Remember not to prejudge!) Eye-witnesses: any? What did they see? (Use direct speech.)

__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________

Arrival of police, ambulance.

__________________________________________ 26

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Action taken

__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________

Comment by hospital.

__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________

Comment by police spokesman.

__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________

Action to be taken inquiry etc.

__________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________

Other recent accidents.

__________________________________________ __________________________________________

iii. Writing a Report Based on an Event

How to write an event report 1. Start thinking on making your report happen as soon as the event is sure happening. 27

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

2.

Take pictures of all the main parts of the day.

3.

Get reaction quotes from people in the crowd during and after the event.

4.

Before and after the event, talk to the people responsible for planning and speaking at the event.

5.

Make notes of pertinent stats such as the number of people attending, the location, the time, the theme, as well as anything else that stands out or makes the event distinct.

6.

Get a close up picture of everyone you get a quote from.

7.

3 hours to 3 days after the event, sit down and compile all the information onto one page.

8.

Include the important stats in a prominent location (top right corner). Sprinkle the page liberally with scaled-down pictures of the event. Include 2-4 of the best quotes you found along with pictures of the person who said it.

9.

Write out a paragraph length summary of the day, highlighting all the most exciting and meaningful elements so that anyone can get a general overview of the scope and schedule of the day.

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Writing Task

Your college had just organized a successful jogathon recently to raise funds for the college library. Write a report describing the jogathon for your college magazine. Sketch the map for the said jogathon and use that and the guidelines below to write your report. 10 km jogathon Start : Flagged off by The Director of the college Check points : Write at least 5 checkpoints based on your map Prize-giving ceremony Speech - The Director of the college

iv. Writing Minutes of a Meeting

The secretary of a committee takes down notes on what is being discussed during a meeting. Then the notes are written in a formal manner using a particular format. This written official record is called the Minutes of Meetings.

Guidelines for writing minutes:

1. The name and the society 2. The date, place and time of the meeting 3. Names of persons present at the meeting 4. Names of persons absent (with or without reasons) 5. List of things to be discussed at the meeting 6. Confirmation of issues raised during previous meeting 7. Reports from sub-committee 8. Person or persons assigned to a given task 9. Issue or issues brought to the attention of the committee 10. The time the meeting adjourned 11. Signature of the persons who prepared the minutes and his or her position 12. The date when the minutes were prepared Headings used when writing Minutes of a Meeting

Minutes of the Fourth Committee Meeting 29

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English Language Society, IPG Kampus Raja Melewar, Seremban Date Venue Time Present Absent with apologies : : : : : : Agenda 1. Welcome Speech by Chairman 2. Confirmation of minutes of the last meeting 2. Reports from sub-committee 3. Other matters arising

1.

Welcome Speech by Chairman 1.1

2.

Confirmation of Minutes of the Third Committee Meeting held on 2.1

3.

Reports from Sub-committee 3.1

4.

Other Matters Arising 4.1

The meeting was adjourned at with a word of thanks to the chair.

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(Name (Caps) Secretary Date:

Writing Task

You are the secretary of the English Language Society of your college. Write the minutes of the meeting held at the beginning of the semester.

v. Writing Reports based on Graphs

Information in Graphs and Charts Information can be derived easily by analyzing charts and graphs. Graphs and charts are often used to: 1. Show changes of things over a period of time 2. Show parts of whole things 3. Make a comparison of things effectively and quickly Guidelines 1. 2. Study the given graphs or charts carefully. Pay attention to the following details: (i) (ii) (iii) 3. title or topic Key Source (iv) (v) Years The pattern of the graph (if it is a line graph)

A report should include the following points: (i) An introduction - what is the chart about 31

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

(ii)

An analysis of the chart or graph - Interpreting and identifying the pattern of the graph

(iii)

Classification of the information in the graphs and charts. Then clarify it by giving proof from the charts and graphs as well as logical and appropriate explanation. Additional notes, if any. Conclusion - This includes opinions, comments and suggestions. If it is a line graph you have to make prediction on the future trend of the graph. The predictions you make need not necessarily be true or accurate.

(iv) (v)

Remember to write in a formal tone or language and always refer to the chart or graph when you are writing your report to avoid writing out of point.

Writing Task

Based on a chart or graph that you have, write a report based on what is shown on it.

More task

Read up on other forms of report writing and make notes on each report based on text organisation, the type of language used, the audience. Then compile your notes in your folio.

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Bibliography

Fournier, P. (2004). Strategies for correct writing. New York: Longman

Green, M. (2003). English writing workshop. Analyse, review, comment. TG Building, Singapore: Learners Publishing Pte Ltd.

How to write an event report. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.wikihow.com/Write-an-EventReport

Langan, J. (2008). College writing skills. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill International Edition.

Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (1999). Academic English. 3rd ed. New York: Longman.

Rose Tunku Ismail. (1996). A students guide to writing resumes, reports, memorandums and minutes of meetings. Minden, Penang: Pusat Pendidikan Jarak Jauh Universiti Sains Malaysia

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4.2.2 SUMMARY WRITING

What is a summary?

A summary is a condensation or a shortened version of a text. The purpose of writing a summary is to capture the key ideas of another author. A summary has to be brief because the summary writers job is mainly to convey the information contained in a peice of writing in as few words as possible. A summary has to be objective because the summary is concerned with stating the ideas of someone else and showing your understanding of them and is definately not the place for you to respond to the writers ideas.

TYPES OF SUMMARY

There are different types of summaries:

The one-sentence summary is frequently used in academic writing as a way to introduce the reader to the author's central idea or thesis statement. The informative summary expresses the original author's main ideas, main supporting details, data and arguments. It is much longer than the one-sentence summary and is often incorporated into longer works. The precis condenses the original text to a specific length, usually one-third or onefourth the length of the text. In precis writing, you keep to the author's approach, organisational scheme and sequencing of ideas.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SUMMARY

A good summary has the following characteristics:

1.

It gives a proper citation.

The title, author and source of the text are given as an in-text citation within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. 34

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2.

It includes the main ideas.

3.

The central idea or thesis statement is summarised clearly and accurately. Key ideas that the author makes are included without adding your personal opinions, views and judgements. Specifics such as examples, illustrations, descriptions and detailed explanations are omitted (unless the concepts of the original are complex and could only be understood with examples). It uses paraphrases.

4.

The author's ideas are restated using your own words and sentence structures. Language (vocabulary, grammar, punctuation) is checked to ensure that the original meaning of the text is retained. It is of appropriate length.

A summary is much shorter than the original text. The length of the summary will depend on the purpose of summarising and the length of the original document. If the purpose is to concisely state the main information (the thesis statement) of the text, then a oneor two-sentence summary is appropriate. An informative summary of a short text will include a little detail for each main point. A precis will condense the text to one-third or one-fourth of the original length.

HOW TO SUMMARISE A TEXT

STEP 1 Read the article carefully several times. Make sure you understand the ideas presented

STEP 2 Write one very broad thesis statement.

Ask yourself what the text is about. Then, write one very broad statement about the text, as if telling your friend

35

about the article you havejust read.

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

STEP 3 Identify the main points of the article.

What are the main points of the article?

Identify the primary idea, assertion or finding that is being discussed. Look out for the main supporting details, the most effective example, the most

telling statistics and the most important authority cited.

Read each paragraph carefully and use one or more of the following helpful techniques to identify the main points:
Underline or highlight the main ideas that you believe are important. Make margin notes of the main ideas that you believe are important. Mark the topic sentence of each paragraph. (Often, the first and/or the last

sentence of a paragraph captures the key idea of the paragraph.)

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STEP 4 Write the first draft of the summary. Put away the original text. Using only your notes from step 3, write your first draft. Make sure you paraphrase the original sentences. Begin the summary with an in-text citation. Next, write a sentence using your own words stating the central idea. (identified in step 2). Combine all the main ideas you have identified (in step 3). Use discourse markers (e.g. therefore, however, because) to show the coherence. relationships between the ideas. Check with the original text for accuracy of meaning.

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STEP 5 Rewrite your summary When rewriting your summary, focus on the meaning of the original text, correcting the content or tone of the draft to ensure you do not distort the author's message. Make sure your language is clear and objective. Remember, your final summary should be a shortened version that is comprehensive, concise, neutral and accurate.

Example of Summarising

Step 1. Read and understand ideas presented.

For many years, Malaysian Chinese were hardly interested in tracing their ancestors who had migrated to this country. In recent years, however, many Chinese have developed an avid (interest in their family tree or descent and their cultural background for many reasons). Firstly, many Chinese became inquisitive and highly interested in their descent, their long lost relatives and the culture of China because travel to and from China has become more liberalised and easy. Secondly, the culture and the people of China are constantly featured on satellite TV - Discovery Travel and Adventure which is viewed by millions. As a result of these two reasons, a new passion has been created for thousands of Chinese migrants in Malaysia.

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Step 2 .Write one very broad thesis statement.

Many Chinese have developed an avid interest in their family tree or descent and their cultural background.

Step 3. Identify the main points of the article and make outline notes.

For many years, Malaysian Chinese were hardly interested in tracing their ancestors who had migrated to this country. In recent years, however, many Chinese have developed an avid (interest in their family tree or descent and their cultural background for many reasons). Firstly, many Chinese became inquisitive and highly interested in their descent, their long lost relatives and the culture of China because travel to and from China has become more liberalised and easy. Secondly, the culture and the people of China are constantly featured on satellite TV - Discovery Travel and Adventure which is viewed by millions. As a result of these two reasons, a new passion has been created for thousands of Chinese migrants in Malaysia.

Making outline notes:

1. Malaysian Chinese's recent interest in their background: (a) Family trees (b) Cultural background

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

2. Reasons for interest: (a) Travel to and from China has become more liberalised and easy

(b) Discovery Travel and Adventure - features China

Step 4. Writing out the first draft of the summary

Recently, many Malaysian Chinese have developed a keen interest in their family tree or descent and the cultural background for many reasons.

Writing out important supporting details:

'... because of ( liberalisation Of travel to and from China and the televised programme featuring China on Discovery Travel and Adventure

Step 5. Rewrite your summary and make sure the content and tone of the author is not distorted.

Recently, many Malaysian Chinese have developed a keen interest in their descent and cultural background because of liberalisation of travel to and from China and TV programmes featuring China's culture and its people .

Exercise 1 40

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The important points in the passage have been underlined. (a) Use these important points to make outline notes. (b) Use the outline notes to: i. write out the thesis statement with controlling ideas ii. write out some important details

Our dreams do not come from 'another world'. They are not messages from some outside source. They are not a look into the future, nor do they prophecy anything.

All our dreams have something to do with our emotions, fears, longings, wishes, needs, memories. But something on the 'outside' may influence what we dream. If we are hungry, or tired, or cold, our dream may include this feeling. If the blanket has slipped oft our bed, we may dream we are on an iceberg. The materials for the dream we have tonight is likely to come from the experiences we will have today.

So the content of our dream comes from something that affects us while we are sleeping (cold, noise, discomfort, and so on) and it may also use our past experiences and the urges and interests we have now. This is why very young children are likely to dream of wizards or fairies, older children of school exams, hungry people of food, homesick soldiers of their families, and prisoners of freedom. Psychoanalysts, people who study Our minds, have made a special study of why we dream what we dream, and what those dreams mean. Their interpretation of dreams otters an interesting approach to the problem. They believe that dreams are expressions of wishes that didn't come true, or of frustrated yearnings. In other words, a dream is a way of having our wish fulfilled.

Exercise 2

Write a summary of about one-third the length of the passage.

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Classroom teachers can encounter speech and language problems in several forms in children. The first of these, language delay, is commonly linked with mental retardation, or slowness of the mind. Children with poor mental cognitive development or poor learning ability may show a slow rate of language development as well.

Another form of speech problem, stuttering, seems to involve speech production mainly, and to a lesser extent, the overall thinking ability. Stuttering occurs when a person finds it difficult to say the first sound of a word and so often hesitates or repeats it two or three times. The causes of stuttering are still unclear, though it does become worse if the children become stressed and excited. But this does not mean that teachers should avoid at all costs to excite children who stutter. lt does mean, however, that teachers should expect fluctuations or changes in amount of stuttering produced depending on the degree of excitement in different circumstances.

A third form of speech problem, speech or articulation disorders, is the most common among school children. Such children may mix up, omit, or substitute certain sounds of language, giving their speech a'babyish' quality, a vewy fuwwy beaw', they may say, instead of 'a very furry bear'. Although such error occur most commonly among younger children, they can persist well into adolescence for a few people.

CHECKLIST

Use this checklist when double-checking your summary.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Have you read the original text carefully and understood it completely? If the author's name and the title of the source is mentioned, have you included it in the opening section of the summary? Have you included the thesis statement of the original text? Have all the main ideas of the original text been included? Have all the important findings, ideas and arguments been accurately and objectively paraphrased? Have you checked that you did not include your personal opinions, views and judgement? Have you omitted specifics such as examples, descriptions and detailed explanations?

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8. 9. 10. 11.

Is your summary comprehensible even after cutting down words to condense it? Have you checked your summary against the original text for accuracy? Have the tone and intention of the original text been maintained? Does your summary make sense to someone who has not read the original text?

Key: Exercise 1 Making outline notes: Dreams - not messages from outer source - not a look into future - not prophecy Dreams are related to emotions, fear, longings, wishes, needs, memories influenced by environment. Content of dream - influenced by past experiences, urges and interests, aunfulfilled wishes, yearnings. A dream is a way of having our wish fulfilled

Writing out the thesis statement with controlling ideas: Dream are a way of having our wish fulfilled, not a prophecy, or messages from an outer source.

Writing out some important details: All dreams are made of unfulfilled emotions,fears, longings, wishes, needs memories influenced by past experiences, urges and interests.

Exercise 2

Classroom teachers often encounter different forms of speech and language disorders in children like language delay, stuttering and articulation disorder. Language delay is linked to slow mental and language development, while stuttering affects speech production but hardly affects thinking ability. Articulation disorder on the other hand, occurs when children mix up, omit, and substitute certain sounds of language. 43

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Bibliography

Ng, K. S., Lim, S. K. and Tan, L. H. (2009). Getting ahead with English. Grammar and writing. Shah Alam: Federal Marshall Cavendish Education.

Krishnakumari Karuthan, Nor Azni Abdullah and Ahmad Mazli Muhammad. (2010). Writing with sources. A guide book for academic writers. Shah Alam: McGraw-Hill Education.

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4.2.3 LETTER WRITING

There are basically two types of letter writing namely formal letter and informal letter. Formal letters are such as letter of complaint , letter to order stationery, letter to protest, etc whereas Informal letters are such as letter to a friend, letter to family members, etc.

A:

FORMAL LETTER (i) Language features (ii) Formal tone Words which tell us how, when or where Words which express judgements Words such as because, as a results to establish cause /effect relationship.

Format Business Letter Format Block Format: Business Letter

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Return Address Line 1 1 Return Address Line 2 Date (Month Day, Year) 2 Mr./Mrs./Ms./Dr. Full name of recipient. 3 Title/Position of Recipient. Company Name Address Line 1 Address Line 2 Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name: 4 Subject: Title of Subject 5 Body Paragraph 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................... ................................................................... Body Paragraph 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................... ................................................................... Body Paragraph 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................... ................................................................... 6 Closing (Sincerely...), 7 Signature 8 Your Name (Printed) 9 Your Title Enclosures (2) 10 Typist Initials. 11 The block format is the simplest format; all of the writing is flush against the left margin.

Your Address 1 The return address of the sender so the recipient can easily find out where to send a reply to. Skip a line between your address and the date. (Not needed if the letter is printed on paper with the company letterhead already on it.) Date 2 Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day Year i.e. August 30, 2003. Skip a line between the date and the inside address (some people skip 3 or 4 lines after the date). Inside Address 3 The address of the person you are writing to along with the name of the recipient, their title and company name, if you are not sure who the letter should be addressed to either leave it blank, 46

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

but try to put in a title, i.e. "Director of Human Resources". Skip a line between the date and the salutation. Salutation 4 Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name:, Dear Director of Department Name: or To Whom It May Concern: if recipient's name is unknown. Note that there is a colon after the salutation. Skip a line between the salutation and the subject line or body. Subject Line (optional) 5 Makes it easier for the recipient to find out what the letter is about. Skip a line between the subject line and the body. Body 6 The body is where you write the content of the letter; the paragraphs should be single spaced with a skipped line between each paragraph. Skip a line between the end of the body and the closing. Closing 7 Let's the reader know that you are finished with your letter; usually ends with Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that there is a comma after the end of the closing and only the first word in the closing is capitalized. Skip 3-4 lines between the closing and the printed name, so that there is room for the signature. Signature 8 Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink with a pen. Printed Name 9 The printed version of your name, and if desired you can put your title or position on the line underneath it. Skip a line between the printed name and the enclosure. Enclosure 10 If letter contains other document other than the letter itself your letter will include the word "Enclosure." If there is more than one you would type, "Enclosures (#)" with the # being the number of other documents enclosed, not including the letter itself. Reference Initials 11 If someone other than yourself typed the letter you will include your initials in capital letters followed by the typist's initials in lower case in the following format; AG/gs or AG:gs. (i) Example (ii) Sample Business Letter

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2020 Jalan Sikamat 70400 Seremban January 5, 2012 Mr. Bruno Accounts Payable The Delicious Store 1010 Jalan Megamall 70100 Seremban Dear Mr. Bruno: It has come to my attention that your company, The Delicious Store has been late with paying their invoices for the past three months. In order to encourage our customers to pay for their invoices before the due date, we have implemented a discount model where we will give you 2% off your invoice if you pay us within 7 days of receiving the invoice. I hope that everything is going well for you and your company. You are one of our biggest customers, and we appreciate your business. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me at (06) 888-8888 Sincerely, Signature Mars Accounts Receivable

B: INFORMAL LETTER (i) Language features Informal tone Social expressions Language forms and functions.

(ii)

Format Friendly Letter Format 48

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Return Address Line 1 1 Return Address Line 2 Date (Month Day, Year) 2

Dear Name of Recipient, 3 Body Paragraph 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................ ................... Body Paragraph 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................ ................... Body Paragraph 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................ ...................4

Closing (Sincerely...), 5 Signature 6 P.S. 7

In the friendly letter format, your address, date, the closing, signature, and printed name are all indented to the right half of the page (how far you indent in is up to you as long as the heading and closing is lined up, use your own discretion and make sure it looks presentable). Also the first line of each paragraph is indented. Your Address 1 All that is needed is your street address on the first line and the city, state and zip on the second line. (Not needed if the letter is printed on paper with a letterhead already on it.) Date 2 Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day Year e.g. August 30, 2003. Skip a line between the date and the salutation. Salutation 3 Usually starts out with Dear so and so, or Hi so and so. Note: There is a comma after the end of the salutation (you can use an exclamation point also if there is a need for some emphasis). Body 4 The body is where you write the content of the letter; the paragraphs should be single spaced 49

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

with a skipped line between each paragraph. Skip 2 lines between the end of the body and the closing. Closing 5 Let's the reader know that you are finished with your letter; usually ends with Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that there is a comma after the end of the closing and only the first word in the closing is capitalized. Signature 6 Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink with a pen. Skip a line after your signature and the P.S. P.S. 7 If you want to add anything additional to the letter you write a P.S. (post script) and the message after that. You can also add a P.P.S after that and a P.P.P.S. after that and so on. (iii) Example Sample Friendly Letter 506 Country Lane North Baysville, CA 53286 December 02, 2011

Dear Samatha, It feels like such a long time since the last time I saw you. I know it's only been a month since I saw you. So far my holidays have been great! I spend all my weekends at the beach. I am getting a nice tan and you can no longer say I am paler than you. I have been playing lots of volleyball, surfing and building a nice collection of sea shells. Just this past weekend I took second place in a sandcastle building contest! On the weekdays I work. I drive an ice cream truck around and sell ice cream to the kids. It is so cool. It is a combination of the two things I love most, ice cream and kids. The pay isn't too great but I love the job so much. I hope the holidays been going well for you too. There's only a month left before it's back to school. Would you like to meet up some time before school starts?

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Your friend, Signature P.S. William says hi.

Writing Tasks

(a) A Letter of Complaint You are a resident of Taman Sinar Harapan. You and several of the residents in your area are unhappy with the presence of numerous stalls in your area/ Your complaints are about: Stalls sprawling onto the roads Unhygienic conditions at the stalls Lack of parking space Clogged drains Write a letter to the town council complaining about the conditions When writing the letter, you should; Mention the complaints Give suggestions on how to overcome the problems Include any other relevant information.

(b) A Letter to a Friend Write a letter to a friend tellinghim/her about a frightening experience.

Bibliography 51

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Maryann, S., and Roy,J. (2007). Model compositions and summaries. 3rd ed. Kuala Lumpur : Oxford Fajar .

Letter writing guide. (2004-2011 LetterWritingGuide.com ). Sample business letter. Retrieved http://www.letterwritingguide.com/samplebusiness.htm

Letter writing guide. (2004-2011 LetterWritingGuide.com ). Sample friendly letter format. Retrieved from http://www.letterwritingguide.com/friendlyletterformat.htm

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TOPIC 5

WRITING ACADEMIC PAPERS

5.0 This topic intends to assist course participants to be aware of how academic papers are written, able to paraphrase ideas given, use the APA citation style (6 th edition) correctly and write a good academic paper. 5.1 Learning Outcomes
Distinguish facts from opinions and paraphrase them Display and justify findings

Cite references correctly using the APA citation style (6th edition) Write effectively an academic paper with the assistance of articles read

5.2 Content WRITING ACADEMIC PAPERS

5.2.2 Referencing System APA 6th Edition 5.2.1 Components of an Academic Paper

Ways of citing and writing references and bibliography

5.2.1 What Is Academic Writing? Writing is one of the four main skills that is pertinent in various areas in life. One type of writing is academic writing which has its own set of rules and practices.

These rules and practices may be organised around a formal order or structure in which to present ideas, in addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by author citations in the literature. In contrast to personal writing contexts, academic writing is different because it deals with the underlying theories and causes governing processes and practices in everyday life, as well as exploring alternative explanations for these events. Academic writing follows a particular tone and adheres to traditional conventions of punctuation, grammar, and spelling.

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i.

Structure

Some kind of structure is required, such as a beginning, middle, and end. This simple structure is typical of an essay format, as well as other assignment writing tasks, which may not have a clearly articulated structure. A. Academic writing structure

Typical university assignments follow a formal structure, which is often more formal than in personal writing. Essays In the case of an essay, the introductory paragraph informs the reader about the nature of the topic, which is discussed and evaluated in the middle of the essay, also referred to as the body. The introduction may also summarise very succinctly, in a sentence or two, your position on the issue, which is then elaborated on at length in the series of paragraphs that make up the essay's body. The final paragraph constitutes a conclusion in which you may summarise the overall points made. The concluding paragraph is also a good point at which to move the essay forward to touch on implications or future advancements surrounding the issues addressed.

Reports ii. Another type of structure, common in university assignments is that of a report, often organised around the identification of problems or difficulties and corresponding solutions. Unlike most essays, a report is divided according to clearly labelled sections, such as Introduction, Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Further, unlike an essay, reports allow for bulleted points with respect to the conclusions and recommendations sections.

Referencing

A significant difference between academic writing and other writing genres is based on the citation and referencing of published authors. A. Referencing and citation If you make judgments about something in academic writing, there is an expectation that you will support your opinion by linking it to what a published author has previously written about the issue. Citing the work of other authors is central to academic writing because it shows you have read the literature, understood the ideas, and have integrated these issues and varying perspectives into the assignment task. The importance placed on referring to other authors in your work can be reflected in the elaborate referencing conventions that have been created within different disciplines, such as APA (American Psychological Association) referencing, 54

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which is used in psychology, education, some social sciences, as well as for business. iii. Academic Tone

Like all varieties of writing, academic writing has its own tone, which dictates the choice of words and phrasing. Academic writing typically aims to be: objective (e.g. using inclusive language) concise formal (e.g. avoiding slang, exclamation marks, contractions) The tone of academic writing can also vary significantly depending on the subject-area and the academic discipline you are writing for. The readings, textbook, and study guide of your course show you what tone is expected in the paper, so study their style carefully. A. Writing objectively

Being objective suggests that you are concerned about facts and are not influenced as much by personal feelings or biases. Part of being objective is being fair in your work. Try to show both sides of an argument if you can and avoid making value judgements through your use of words such as wonderful or sarcastically. Being objective also makes your work more professional and believable. Techniques to make your writing more objective : Be explicit in expressing your ideas. For example, ten instead of several; 70% instead of most of the population; three years ago or in 2006 instead of some time ago. Avoid intensifiers which can tend to exaggerate your writing. For example, awfully, very, really. Avoid language that implicitly excludes any group of people. Avoid the personal pronoun I but write more impersonally. For example, It could be argued that instead of I think. Alternatively use citations to express your views, e.g. Satherley (2007) believes that

Note: Despite the fact that you are not encouraged to use the personal pronoun I in academic writing, your viewpoints and opinions will still come through. Although they may not be specifically attributed to you, the fact that the comments you choose to make are a part of your assignment tells the reader that you believe what you are writing. Stating I think or In my opinion weakens the text and the strength of your argument. In addition, adding such personal comments almost seems to emphasise that the writing is just your opinions or interpretations, rather than positions that are supported by logic and the evidence. 55

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However, some lecturers and some styles of academic writing (e.g. reflective writing) allow or encourage the use of the personal pronoun. See 1st person vs. 3rd person for details. Techniques to make your writing more concise: Make your points straight away The first point relates to, Secondly, Finally Replace phrases with single words The group of science students sat their exams the science students sat their exams Smith (2006) also believed this to be true, but took into consideration the fact that some managers also preferred to have long meetings that took all day Smith(2006) agreed, but considered the fact that some managers preferred to have longer, allday meetings.

Avoid qualifying words which mean the same thing Records instead of past records Separate instead of separate out In retrospect instead of looking back in retrospect Omit unnecessary words lowering the rope instead of lowering the rope down measuring the job instead of measuring up the job because instead of due to the fact that Avoid saying the same thing twice The farmer sheared the sheep and removed all their wool could simply be replaced with The farmer sheared the sheep Be wary of clumsy sentences where extra words have been added that detract from the point being made There are several of the soldiers, each with their guns and ammunition, who gathered at the gates of the camp before dawn. A better way would be to say: Several of the soldiers, each with their own guns and ammunition, gathered at the camp gates before dawn. iv. The audience

It is important to remember who you are writing for. Being conscious of academic tone suggests that you are aware of your audience and respect the formality normally associated with academic writing. When writing academically, you must target a more general audience than just your lecturer and/or marker. You should assume that your readers will be intelligent thinking people, but they may not be specifically informed of your topic. Do not presume that your reader knows all the terms and concepts associated with your work. 56

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v.

Punctuation and grammar

In academic writing you should always follow rules of punctuation and grammar, especially as the end-user or consumer of your writing, unlike a friend, is likely to be very different from you and will not always know to what you are referring. Hence, it is vital that you are clear. Punctuation and the conventions of grammar are universally known systems (within English speaking cultures) that maintain clarity and avoid ambiguity in expression. vi. Editing and proofreading

In order to produce an assignment that is as professional as possible, you must proofread. Take your time when proofreading. One way to check your assignment is to read it aloud, or even tape record yourself reading it and then play it back. You could also ask a friend or family member to read over the assignment for you.

Tasks 1. 2. Download an academic paper related to your major course. Study the academic paper and discuss its language aspects. Select a section of the article and paraphrase it. More Tasks

Select a topic that interests you. Then read at least three academic papers based on the topic chosen. Next, write an academic paper with the help of the articles you have read.

Bibliography

Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing. (2007). Bowker, N. ed. Retrieved from http://owll.massey.ac.nz/pdf/Academic-Writing-Guide.pdf What is academic writing ( 1998 - 2010 Massey University). Retrieved from http://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/what-is-academic-writing.php

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5.2.2. REFERENCING SYSTEM APA 6th EDITION Examples of referencing: Print Book Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year published). Book title. Location: Publisher. Sturrock, P. (1999). The UFO enigma: A new review of the physical evidence. New York: Warner Books. Author - Malay Names (without family names, omit bin / binti) Asmah Omar. (1991). Kemahiran berbahasa. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Penerbitan Pustaka Antara. Author Chinese Names (First name first, followed by author initials)

Chu, C. N. (1995). Simulated counter-current adsorption processes: A comparison of modeling strategies. Chemical Engineering Journal, 56, 59-65. Author Chinese Names with English Names (Family names followed by the initials of the English name and the author initials) e.g. Vincent Foo Hong Kong Foo, V. H. K. (1983). Sarawak: Mini episodes of the past. Selangor, Malaysia: Fajar Bakti. Author-Indian & Sikh Names (without family names, omit s/o, d/o, a/l, a/p) Tamilarasi Palani. (2009) ........ Inherited names (cite as it is) Raja Ahmad Petra. (2010). ..... Conferred titles (Omit title) e.g. Tun Mahathir Mohamad Mahathir Mohamad. (2011). ... Edition other than the first Helfer, M.E., Keme, R.S., & Drugman, R.D. (1997). The battered child (5th ed.). Chicago, NY: University of Chicago Press. Article or chapter in an edited book Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher. 58

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Rogoff, B., & Mistry, J. (1985). Memory development in cultural context. In M. Pressley & C. J.Brainerd (Eds.), Cognitive learning and memory in children (pp. 117-142). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. Electronic Book Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year published). Book title. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx Schiraldi, G. R. (2001). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide to healing, recovery, and growth [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi:10.1036/0071393722 An Entry in a Print Reference Book Author, A. A. (Year published). Title of chapter or entry. In Title of book (xx ed., Vol. xx, pp.xxxxxx). Location: Publisher. Michin, D. (2001). Introduction of Exotic Species. In Encyclopedia of ocean sciences (Vol. 2, pp. 877-889). New York: Academic Press. An Entry in an Online Reference Book Author, A. A. (Year published). Title of chapter or entry. In Title of book (xx ed., Vol. xx, pp.xxxxxx). Retrieved from http://xxx.xxxxxx.xxx James, D. (2009). Teaching Speaking Skills. In ESL Methodology ( 3rd ed.Vol.2, pp 200-210). . Retrieved from http://www. Language Quarterly.com. Journal Article Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), pages. Sobczak, J. (2009). Struggling to reconnect: Women's perspectives on alcohol dependence, violence, and sexual function. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 14(6), 421-428. Online Journal Article with DOI Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), pages. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx Campbell, C. I., Alexander, J. A., & Lemak, C. H. (2009). Organizational determinants of . outpatient substance abuse treatment duration in women. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 37(1), 64-72. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2008.09.012 Online Journal Article without DOI (when DOI is not available) Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), pages. Retrieved from http://xxx.xxxxxx.xxx

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Newspaper Article Author, A. A. (Year, Month day published). Title of article. Newspaper Title, page numbers. Baty, P. (2011, December 11). Key factors in rankings. StarEducate, p.3. Buggs, S. (2001, December 18). Texas lawmaker to introduce bill to protect employee savings. . Houston Chronicle, p.A1. Online Newspaper Article Author, A. A. (Year, Month day published). Title of article. Newspaper title. Retrieved from http://xxx.xxxxxxx.xxx Cooper, H. (2009, August 23). U.S. military says its force in Afghanistan is insufficient. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com Website Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Title of page. Retrieved from http://xxx.xxxxx.xxx University of Houston System. (1999, February 5). Community impact report. Retrieved from http://www.uhsa.uh.edu/community/impact/education.htm Unknown author (dont use anonymous) Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

Exercise 1

Write the correct referencing for each of the documents below:

1.

Societies look at changing the face of science & engineering; Ann Thayer; Chemical & Engineering News, Washington; Nov 25, 2002; Vol. 80, Iss. 47; pg. 39

2.

Beyond the republic: meeting the global challenges to constitutionalism / editors Charles Sampford, Tom Round. Leichhardt, N.S.W. : Federation Press, 2001 xvii, 344 p. ; 25 cm.Includes index.

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3.

Looked at on 12th February 2003 http://www.who.int/en/ World Health Organisation Home Page No author but date = 2003 Amnesty International Report 2002 Kuwait. Viewed September 15th 2002 at http://web.amnesty.org/web/ar2002.nsf/mde/kuwait!Open The new look. StarFit4Life. Milton Lum 13 December 2011, p.2 Macmillan Education, London. (2nd ed.). Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. 2007 From Science Direct database the full text of: Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: review and predictions Marine and Freshwater Research Volume: 50, Issue: 8, 1999, pp. 867 878 Wilkinson, Clive R. Wednesday's children : a study of child neglect and abuse / by Leontine Young Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, Myers, John E. B. Risk management for professionals working with maltreated children and adult survivors. [Chapter] Myers, John E. B. (Ed); Berliner, Lucy (Ed); et al. (2002). The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (2nd ed.). (pp. 403-427). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc. Herbert, Martin. Parenting skills interventions. Reder, Peter (Ed); McClure, Mike (Ed). (2000). Family matters: Interfaces between child and adult mental health. (pp. 237-256). New York, NY, US: Routledge. xii, 347pp Hendricks, Cindy S. Children in crisis. [Chapter] Hendricks, James E. (Ed); Byers, Bryan D. (Ed). (2002). Crisis intervention in criminal justice/social service (3rd ed.). (pp. 170225). Springfield, IL, US: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher. xvi, 427pp. Why children's suggestibility remains a serious concern. Amye R. Warren, Dorothy F. Marsil. Law and Contemporary Problems Wntr 2002 v65 1 p127(21) What to do with the angry toddler. Morris Green, Paula D. Sullivan, Carolyn G. Eichberg. Contemporary Pediatrics August 2001 v18 i8 p65 (5573 words) Exercise 2

4.

5. 6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Download this example (Hacker, D. (2004). APA research paper (Shaw). Retrieved from http://www.dianahacker.com/pdfs/hacker-shaw-apa.pdf ) of how the APA citation style is used in a research paper. Study it carefully and use it in your next assignment or research.

Bibliography University of Malaya Library (UML) (2011). APA formatting and style guide (6th ed.). Kuala Lumpur: University Malaya Library. 61

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Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (2010). (6th ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

KEY to Exercise 1 Journal article (this is really a newsletter format accordingly) Societies look at changing the face of science & engineering; Ann Thayer; Chemical & Engineering News, Washington; Nov 25, 2002; Vol. 80, Iss. 47; pg. 39

1.

Answer
Thayer, A.. (2002, November). Societies look at changing the face of science engineering. Chemical & Engineering News, 80(47), 39.

2.

Book Beyond the republic: meeting the global challenges to constitutionalism / editors Charles Sampford, Tom Round. Leichhardt, N.S.W. : Federation Press, 2001 xvii, 344 p. ; 25 cm.Includes index.

Answer
Sampford, C., & Round, T. (Eds.). (2001). Beyond the republic: meeting the global challenges to constitutionalism. Leichhardt, N.S.W.: Federation Press.

3.

Web page
Looked at on 12th February 2003 http://www.who.int/en/ World Health Organisation Home Page No author but date = 2003

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Answer
World Health Organization. (2003). Retrieved February 12, 2003, from http://www.who.int/en/

4.

Web page Amnesty International Report 2002 Kuwait. Viewed September 15th 2002 at http://web.amnesty.org/web/ar2002.nsf/mde/kuwait!Open

Answer
Amnesty International Report 2002. Kuwait. (2002). Retrieved September 15, 2002, from http://web.amnesty.org/web/ar2002.nsf/mde/kuwait!Open

5.

Newspaper article The new look. StarFit4Life. Milton Lum 13 December 2011, p.2

Answer Lum, M. (December 13, 2011). The new look. StarFit4Life, p.2. 6. Dictionary Macmillan Education, London. (2nd ed.). Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. 2007

Answer Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2007). (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan Education.

7.

Online article from a database From Science Direct database the full text of: Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: review and predictions Marine and Freshwater Research Volume: 50, Issue: 8, 1999, pp. 867 878 Wilkinson, Clive R.

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Answer
Wilkinson, C. R. (1999). Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: review and predictions. Marine and Freshwater Research, 50(8), 867-878. Retrieved June 23, 2002, from Science Direct.

8.

Book Wednesday's children : a study of child neglect and abuse / by Leontine Young Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press,

Answer
Young, L. (n.d.). Wednesdays children: a study of child neglect and abuse. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. 9 Other than the first edition Myers, John E. B. Risk management for professionals working with maltreated children and adult survivors. [Chapter] Myers, John E. B. (Ed); Berliner, Lucy (Ed); et al. (2002). The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (2nd ed.). (pp. 403-427). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.

Answer Myers, J. E. B. (2002). Risk management for professionals working with maltreated children and adult survivors. In J. E. B. Myers, & L.Berliner et al (Eds.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (2nd ed., pp. 403-427).) Thousand Oaks, CA,: Sage Publication.

10.

Article or chapter in an edited book Herbert, Martin. Parenting skills interventions. Reder, Peter (Ed); McClure, Mike (Ed). (2000). Family matters: Interfaces between child and adult mental health. (pp. 237-256). New York, NY, US: Routledge. xii, 347pp

Answer Herbert, M. (2000). Parenting skills interventions. In P. Reder & M. McClure (Eds.), Family matters: Interfaces between child and adult mental health. (pp. 237-256). New York: Routledge 11. Hendricks, Cindy S. Children in crisis. [Chapter] Hendricks, James E. (Ed); Byers, Bryan D. (Ed). (2002). Crisis intervention in criminal justice/social service (3rd ed.). (pp. 170-225). Springfield, IL, US: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher.

Answer Hendricks, C. S. (2002). Children in crisis. In J. E. Hendricks & B. D. Byers. Crisis intervention in criminal justice/social service (3rd ed. pp. 170-225). Springfield, IL,: Charles C. Thomas. 64

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12.

Why children's suggestibility remains a serious concern. Amye R. Warren, Dorothy F. Marsil. Law and Contemporary Problems Wntr 2002 v65 1 p127(21).

Answer Warren, A. R. & Marsil, D. F. (2002). Why children's suggestibility remains a serious concern. Law and Contemporary Problems 65(1) p127(21). 13. What to do with the angry toddler. Morris Green, Paula D. Sullivan, Carolyn G. Eichberg. Contemporary Pediatrics August 2001 v18 i8 p65.

Answer Green, M., Sullivan, P. D., & Eichberg, C. G. (2001). What to do with the angry toddler. Contemporary Pedicatrics 18(8), 65.

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TOPIC 6

WRITING REFLECTIONS

6.0 This topic intends to introduce to course participants the importance of writing critical reflections and how to write a good critical reflection. 6.1 Learning Outcomes Read and identify the strengths and weaknesses of a piece of reflection. Use correct and appropriate language in writing a reflection. Write a critical reflection. Assess own reflection through critical analysis. Aware of the importance of writing a reflection.

6.2 Content
WRITING REFLECTIONS

DEFINITION

IMPORTANCE

HOW TO REFLECT

ANALYSIS

PRACTICE WRITE A CRITICAL REFLECTION

6.2.1 Definition It is generally believed that the thinking process involves two aspects: reflective thinking and critical thinking. They are not separate processes; rather, they are closely connected (Brookfield 1987). Reflective writing is writing which involves ' consideration of the larger context, the meaning, and the implications of an experience or action' (Branch & Paranjape, 2002, p.1185).

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Reflective thoughts can be presented and shown orally or in written form. For example, you can do a class oral presentation on your reflection of your first semesters experience as a PPG student, or you can also write your reflection in an essay form. Below is what reflective thinking is and what is not:

YES your response to experiences, opinions, events or new information your response to thoughts and feelings a way of thinking to explore your learning an opportunity to gain self-knowledge a way to achieve clarity and better understanding of what you are learning a chance to develop and reinforce writing skills a way of making meaning out of what you study

NO just conveying information, instruction or argument pure description, though there may be descriptive elements straightforward decision or judgement (e.g. about whether something is right or wrong, good or bad) simple problem-solving a summary of course notes a standard university essay

Thus your reflective thoughts are what you think, feel and believe about an event, incident or experience. Writing reflection is a good exercise to develop and reinforce your writing skills as it includes description (what, when, who) and analysis (how, why, what if). It is an explorative tool often resulting in more questions than answers.

a) Write R for reflection or NR for not reflection for each of the examples below. i ) The exhibition was clearly a failure. It was disorganized and staff did not know their duties. ii ) There were about twenty booths at the exhibition and each one had its own theme. iii ) It is important for staff to know their duties well as this would enable them to be effective team players. However, this was not the case at this exhibition. iv ) It was a breezy day and the sun was shining brightly. It was a good day to have an exhibition of this scale. _______ _______ _______ _______

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v ) A manager or project manager of an exhibition should have several preliminary meetings with the staff prior to the exhibition. The failure of this exhibition is mainly due to the lack of communication and weak empowerment to the staff. 6.2.2 Importance

_______

Why is doing or writing reflection important to the learning process? Biggs 1999 in King 2002 claims that "Reflection is indicative of deep learning, and where teaching and learning activities such as reflection are missing only surface learning can result." This is to say that if a student is able to write a good piece of reflection on a given task, it is an indication that the student has understood and has a good grasp of that particular topic. This is true of reflection as it does not only consist of mere description but also embedded with analytical descriptions which are derived from good understanding of the theoretical aspects of the topic. Thus reflective writing tasks are given to students to help students learn through reflection, precisely because of the established link between reflection and deeper learning. As well as facilitating learning and monitoring learning, the intention is to produce graduates who have acquired the habit of reflection as a means of continuing to learn and grow in their professions. Reflection can lead to:

personal growth professional growth meaningful change

"Reflection leads to growth of the individual morally, personally, psychologically, and emotionally, as well as cognitively". Branch & Paranjape, 2002, p. 1187 Reflection can help you to:

better understand your strengths and weaknesses what you are good at identify and question your underlying values and beliefs acknowledge and challenge possible assumptions on which you base your ideas, feelings and actions recognize areas of potential bias or discrimination acknowledge your fears, and identify possible inadequacies or areas for improvement

Reflection can lead to greater self-awareness, which in turn is a first step to positive change it is a necessary stage in identifying areas for improvement and growth in both personal and professional contexts. Taking time to reflect can help you identify approaches that have worked well, and in that way reinforce good practice. 68

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6.2.3 How to reflect and write a critical reflection A critical reflection is a combination of thoughtful description and analysis of a topic. Below are the 5 steps to writing a critical reflection. STEP 1 Establish topic . What happened? At this stage you can describe, explain, summarize or narrate what you saw, heard, experienced or felt. You should also state the background of the reflection task. Why and what do you do the reflection for. Develop topic. So what? At this stage you make a point or develop a thesis about the topic. Below are several ways to generate ideas and organize your thoughts. Define Classify: Explain a topic by categorizing. Compare/Contrast: Illustrate the similarities or differences Cause: Consider the cause or root of something Effect: Discuss the effects of something. Evaluate: Determine whether a topic is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, ethical or unethical, effective or ineffective, etc. Or is the topic somewhere in between? Propose: Suggest a necessary action to take or propose a solution to a problem. STEP 3 Conclude. Now what? At this stage you can conclude by stating the importance of the topic to you or to your readers. It is also recommendable to include implications and significance of your ideas. Style. What style should you use? Reflections are mostly informal but the style you choose may depend on the situations. Academic paper may have a conversational tone but research paper may be a bit more formal. Special effects. You may provide and include sketches, photographs, graphs, etc .

STEP 2

STEP 4

STEP 5

6.2.4 How to analyse A good critical reflection is based on analytical questions which lead to self- reflection and not self-criticism. Thus you must also include in your description and analysis how you felt, lessons you have learnt from the experience, and how this will form and affect your future behavior and beliefs. Below is a sample of a written reflection. Note how possible questions are raised to help

improve the reflection.

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When the teacher shouted to the student for no apparent reason, I was shocked. It reminded me to maintain an appropriate communication style with students when I am a teacher. i. Analytical questions : What actually took place? What was the students reaction or feeling? What is the appropriate communication style? Why did the teacher shout? What do you think triggered this behaviour? What have you learnt from this experience? Below is the improved critical reflection of the trainee teacher. ii. When the teacher raised his voice to the student for no apparent reason, I was shocked and the student appeared to feel humiliated. Clearly this behaviour by the teacher was not appropriate, even though the teacher was obviously frustrated at the students apparent inability to understand the simple instructions. While it is the responsibility of every teacher to behave respectfully with students, on this occasion an excessive workload and the communication gap, as the teacher didnt speak the students first language, no doubt contributed to the teacher's behaviour. It reminded me that language and cultural factors within the education system, such as first and second language proficiency, can have an impact on the quality of instructions given by teachers. 6.2.5 Reflective essay structure Before you can write a critical reflection, you need to know the structure or format of your reflection. Reflective essay do not have a certain structure because cannot be written according to a standard essay scheme. This is due to the fact that the thesis statements and the conclusions of reflective essays are often blurry. Here is a probable scheme of a reflective essay:
The aim of the opening paragraph is to get the reader involved in the authors story

including interesting details, personal experiences. The style must be very vivid and therefore to appeal to the reader as if it was a conversation on the meaning of life or love. As we have discussed above this is the part where you establish your topic.
The middle part reveals a good variety of the authors ideas on the topic. This the part

where you develop your reflection. This part may consist several paragraphs.
The last part includes concluding sentences that summarize the main ideas and

experiences of the essay. The author reflects and writes his general perception of the given topic. 70

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STRUCTURE / FORMAT PARAGRAPH 1 Establish topic

PARAGRAPH 2 onwards Develop topic

FINAL PARAGRAPH Conclude and Summarize

Task Using the format shown above, write a reflection on a lecture that you just had. Then exchange it with a friend. Try to raise as many analytical questions on the reflection done by your friend. Then rewrite and improve your reflection by answering some of the questions raised.

Bibliography

Learning through reflection. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/development/reflection.html McIntyre, D. J. and OHair, M. J. (1998). The reflective roles of the classroom teacher. London: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Monash University. (2011). Reflective learning process. Retrieved from http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/medicine/reflective/3.xml Moon, J. (1999). Reflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice. Retrieved from http://www2.unca.edu/et/br022102.html Parsons, R. D. and Brown, K. S. (2002). Teacher as a reflective practitioner and action researcher. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Reflective essay writing rubric. How to write a reflective essay - outline, structure, format, ideas, topics. (2005). Retrieved from http://www.customessays.org/essay_types/Reflective_Essay.html What does your reader expect in a reflection paper? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/alo/critical3.htm 71