4.

1 Understanding the Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal Equilibrium
When objects in thermal contact reach the same temperature, these objects are in thermal equilibrium. There is no net heat flow between them. 1. When two bodies A and B, which are at different temperatures, are placed in contact with each other, heat is transferred from the hotter body, B to the colder body, A. 2. Thermal equilibrium is reached between two objects in contact when : - The net transfer of heat is zero (rate of exchange oh heat are equal) - There is no net flow of heat between two objects - The two objects have the same temperature

3. Example, - Cooking using an oven 1. An oven has a thermostat to keep its temperature constant. 2. When food is placed in an oven, the food absorbs heat from the oven thereby causing its temperature to rise. 3. This process continues until thermal equilibrium is reached. The temperature of the food and oven are equal.

Thermometer
1. Characteristics of the liquid in thermometer - Easily seen - Expand and contract uniformly - Not stick to the glass walls of the capillary tube 2. Mercury is used in thermometer because - It is good conductor of heat - It has a high boiling point - It expands uniformly when heated - It is opaque (does not allow light to pass through) - It can be seen easily 3. How a liquid-in-glass thermometer works : - The bulb of thermometer contains a fixed mass of mercury. - The volume of the mercury increases when it absorbs heat. - The mercury expands and rises in the capillary tube. - The length of the mercury column in the capillary tube indicates the magnitude of the temperature.

4. Mercury freezes at a temperature of -39C (not suitable for measuring temperature below this temperature) 5. Consist of a thin-walled of glass bulb which is connected to a glass capillary tube uniform diameter. 6. The space above the mercury column in the capillary tube is evacuated (a vacuum). 7. The sensitivity of a mercury thermometer can be increased by : - Using a thermometer with a smaller bulb contains less mercury and hence absorb heat in short time. - A glass bulb with thinner wall Heat can be transferred to the bulb easily. - Capillary with narrow bore produces a greater change in the length of the mercury column.

Calibration of a Thermometer
1. A thermometer must be calibrated before it can be used to measure temperature. 2. The first standard temperature is the melting point of pure ice which is 0C , also called ice point (lower fixed point) 3. The second standard temperature is the boiling point of pure water which is 100C , also called the steam point (upper fixed point) 4. The both temperature are taken from same material, water, at a fixed pressure of 1 atmosphere.

To determine the ice point

1. The bulb of an uncalibrated thermometer is placed in the ice 2. The mercury level is marked. This is the taken as the ice point and it is arbitrarily given as 0C. The length of mercury column, l0 .

To determine the steam point

1. The thermometer is placed in steam above boiling water in a boiling flask. 2. The level of the mercury is marked on the stem as 100C. The length of mercury column, l100 .

Measuring temperature
The temperature of a substance can be determined by the formula