A management information system (MIS) is a system that provides information needed to manage organizations effectively.

[1] Management information systems involve three primary resources: technology, information, and people. It's important to recognize that while all three resources are key components when studying management information systems ... the most important resource is people. Management information systems are regarded to be a subset of the overall internal controls procedures in a business, which cover the application of people, documents, technologies, and procedures used by management accountants to solve business problems such as costing a product, service or a business-wide strategy. Management information systems are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used to analyze other information systems applied in operational activities in the organization.[2] Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of human decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems, Expert systems, and Executive information systems.[2here are many types of information management systems in the market that provide a wide range of benefits for companies. Strategic information management system, customer relation management systems and enterprise resource planning systems are some of them. The following are some of the benefits that can be attained for different types of information management systems.[4] Advantages of information management systems (1) The company is able to highlight their strength and weaknesses due to the presence of revenue reports, employee performance records etc. The identification of these aspects can help the company to improve their business processes and operations. (2) The availability of the customer data and feedback can help the company to align their business processes according to the needs of the customers. The effective management of customer data can help the company to perform direct marketing and promotion activities. (3) Information is considered to be an important asset for any company in the modern competitive world. The consumer buying trends and behaviors can be predicted by the analysis of sales and revenue reports from each operating region of the company.
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The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), or Software Development Life Cycle in systems engineering, information systems and software engineering, is the process of creating or altering systems, and the models and methodologies that people use to develop these systems. The concept generally refers to computer or information systems. In software engineering the SDLC concept underpins many kinds of software development methodologies. These methodologies form the framework for planning and controlling the creation of an information system[1]: the software development process. The System Development Life Cycle framework provides a sequence of activities for system designers and developers to follow. It consists of a set of steps or phases in which each phase of the SDLC uses the results of the previous one. A Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) adheres to important phases that are essential for developers, such as planning, analysis, design, and implementation, and are explained in the section below. A number of system development life cycle (SDLC) models have

been created: waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid prototyping, incremental, and synchronize and stabilize. The oldest of these, and the best known, is the waterfall model: a sequence of stages in which the output of each stage becomes the input for the next. These stages can be characterized and divided up in different ways, including the following[6]:

Project planning, feasibility study: Establishes a high-level view of the intended project and determines its goals. Systems analysis, requirements definition: Defines project goals into defined functions and operation of the intended application. Analyzes end-user information needs. Systems design: Describes desired features and operations in detail, including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams, pseudocode and other documentation. Implementation: The real code is written here. Integration and testing: Brings all the pieces together into a special testing environment, then checks for errors, bugs and interoperability. Acceptance, installation, deployment: The final stage of initial development, where the software is put into production and runs actual business. Maintenance: What happens during the rest of the software's life: changes, correction, additions, moves to a different computing platform and more. This, the least glamorous and perhaps most important step of all, goes on seemingly forever.

In the following example (see picture) these stage of the Systems Development Life Cycle are divided in ten steps from definition to creation and modification of IT work products:

The tenth phase occurs when the system is disposed of and the task performed is either eliminated or transferred to other systems. The tasks and work products for each phase are described in subsequent chapters.[7] Not every project will require that the phases be sequentially executed. However, the phases are interdependent. Depending upon the size and complexity of the project, phases may be combined or may overlap.[7]

[edit] System analysis

The goal of system analysis is to determine where the problem is in an attempt to fix the system. This step involves breaking down the system in different pieces to analyze the situation, analyzing project goals, breaking down what needs to be created and attempting to engage users so that definite requirements can be defined. Requirements analysis sometimes requires individuals/teams from client as well as service provider sides to get detailed and accurate requirements; often there has to be a lot of communication to and from to understand these requirements. Requirement gathering is the most crucial aspect as many times communication gaps arise in this phase and this leads to validation errors and bugs in the software program.

[edit] Design
In systems design the design functions and operations are described in detail, including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams and other documentation. The output of this stage will describe the new system as a collection of modules or subsystems. The design stage takes as its initial input the requirements identified in the approved requirements document. For each requirement, a set of one or more design elements will be produced as a result of interviews, workshops, and/or prototype efforts. Design elements describe the desired software features in detail, and generally include functional hierarchy diagrams, screen layout diagrams, tables of business rules, business process diagrams, pseudocode, and a complete entity-relationship diagram with a full data dictionary. These design elements are intended to describe the software in sufficient detail that skilled programmers may develop the software with minimal additional input design.

[edit] Testing
The code is tested at various levels in software testing. Unit, system and user acceptance testings are often performed. This is a grey area as many different opinions exist as to what the stages of testing are and how much if any iteration occurs. Iteration is not generally part of the waterfall model, but usually some occur at this stage. In the testing phase, the whole system is tested one by one Following are the types of testing:

Defect testing Path testing Data set testing Unit testing System testing Integration testing Black box testing White box testing Regression testing Automation testing User acceptance testing Performance testing

[edit] Operations and maintenance

The deployment of the system includes changes and enhancements before the decommissioning or sunset of the system. Maintaining the system is an important aspect of SDLC. As key personnel change positions in the organization, new changes will be implemented, which will require system updates.

[edit] Systems Analysis and Design

The Systems Analysis and Design (SAD) is the process of developing Information Systems (IS) that effectively use of hardware, software, data, process, and people to support the companys business objectives.

[edit] Systems development life cycle topics

[edit] Management and control

SDLC Phases Related to Management Controls.[8] The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) phases serve as a programmatic guide to project activity and provide a flexible but consistent way to conduct projects to a depth matching the scope of the project. Each of the SDLC phase objectives are described in this section with key deliverables, a description of recommended tasks, and a summary of related control objectives for effective management. It is critical for the project manager to establish and monitor control objectives during each SDLC phase while executing projects. Control objectives help to provide a clear statement of the desired result or purpose and should be used throughout the entire SDLC process. Control objectives can be grouped into major categories (Domains), and relate to the SDLC phases as shown in the figure.[8] To manage and control any SDLC initiative, each project will be required to establish some degree of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) to capture and schedule the work necessary to complete the project. The WBS and all programmatic material should be kept in the Project Description section of the project notebook. The WBS format is mostly left to the project manager to establish in a way that best describes the project work. There are some key areas that must be defined in the WBS as part of the SDLC policy. The following

diagram describes three key areas that will be addressed in the WBS in a manner established by the project manager.[8]

[edit] Work breakdown structured organization

Work Breakdown Structure.[8] The upper section of the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) should identify the major phases and milestones of the project in a summary fashion. In addition, the upper section should provide an overview of the full scope and timeline of the project and will be part of the initial project description effort leading to project approval. The middle section of the WBS is based on the seven Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) phases as a guide for WBS task development. The WBS elements should consist of milestones and tasks as opposed to activities and have a definitive period (usually two weeks or more). Each task must have a measurable output (e.x. document, decision, or analysis). A WBS task may rely on one or more activities (e.g. software engineering, systems engineering) and may require close coordination with other tasks, either internal or external to the project. Any part of the project needing support from contractors should have a Statement of work (SOW) written to include the appropriate tasks from the SDLC phases. The development of a SOW does not occur during a specific phase of SDLC but is developed to include the work from the SDLC process that may be conducted by external resources such as contractors and struct.[8]

[edit] Baselines in the SDLC

Baselines are an important part of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC). These baselines are established after four of the five phases of the SDLC and are critical to the iterative nature of the model .[9] Each baseline is considered as a milestone in the SDLC.

Functional Baseline: established after the conceptual design phase. Allocated Baseline: established after the preliminary design phase. Product Baseline: established after the detail design and development phase. Updated Product Baseline: established after the production construction phase.

[edit] Complementary to SDLC

Complementary Software development methods to Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) are:

Software Prototyping Joint Applications Design (JAD) Rapid Application Development (RAD) Extreme Programming (XP); extension of earlier work in Prototyping and RAD. Open Source Development End-user development Object Oriented Programming

Comparison of Methodology Approaches (Post, & Anderson 2006)[10] Open End SDLC RAD Objects JAD Prototyping Source User Control Formal MIS Weak Standards Joint User User Time Frame Long Short Medium Any Medium Short Short Users Many Few Few Varies Few One or Two One MIS staff Many Few Hundreds Split Few One or Two None Transaction/DSS Transaction Both Both Both DSS DSS DSS Interface Minimal Minimal Weak Windows Crucial Crucial Crucial Documentation Vital Limited Internal In Objects Limited Weak None and training Integrity and Vital Vital Unknown In Objects Limited Weak Weak security Reusability Limited Some Maybe Vital Limited Weak None

[edit] Strengths and weaknesses

Few people in the modern computing world would use a strict waterfall model for their Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) as many modern methodologies have superseded this thinking. Some will argue that the SDLC no longer applies to models like Agile computing, but it is still a term widely in use in Technology circles. The SDLC practice has advantages in traditional models of software development, that lends itself more to a structured environment. The disadvantages to using the SDLC methodology is when there is need for iterative development or (i.e. web development or e-commerce) where stakeholders need to review on a regular basis the software being designed. Instead of viewing SDLC from a strength or weakness perspective, it is far more important to take the best practices from the SDLC model and apply it to whatever may be most appropriate for the software being designed. A comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of SDLC: Strength and Weaknesses of SDLC [10] Strengths Weaknesses

Control. Monitor Large projects. Detailed steps. Evaluate costs and completion targets. Documentation. Well defined user input. Ease of maintenance. Development and design standards. Tolerates changes in MIS staffing.

Increased development time. Increased development cost. Systems must be defined up front. Rigidity. Hard to estimate costs, project overruns. User input is sometimes limited.

An alternative to the SDLC is Rapid Application Development, which combines prototyping, Joint Application Development and implementation of CASE tools. The advantages of RAD are speed, reduced development cost, and active user involvement in the development process.

Steps in System Development Life Cycle

X Larry Simmons Larry Simmons is a freelance writer and expert in the fusion of computer technology and business. He has a B.S. in economics, an M.S. in information systems, an M.S. in communications technology, as well as significant work towards an M.B.A. in finance. He's published several hundred articles with Demand Studios. By Larry Simmons, eHow Contributor

Steps in System Development Life Cycle

System Development Life Cycle

o

As hardware and software systems become larger and more complex, it's become increasingly necessary to employ large teams of developers for a single project. In order to manage the teams effectively and maintain a grasp of the overall progress of a project, a method was developed in which system development could be modeled in an easily grasped fashion. The

system development life cycle (SDLC) models in a few crucial steps the creation of these complex systems. While there have been several SDLC models created over time, the oldest and best known is the waterfall model first described by American computer scientist Winston W. Royce. Using the waterfall model, each step of development leads directly into the next, with the output from the earlier step being the input for the step which follows.

Requirements
o

During the requirements step, overall goals are set for the project. This step defines much of the system's behaviors, sets the project plan and creates budget estimates.

Systems Analysis and Design

o

Goals are developed into more specific functions and operations of the system. The look and feel of the system is created during this phase as well. Also determine what the end-user will be able to do with the completed system, taking the opportunity to change the business process if necessary in order to create a functioning system. This step is all about high-level design of the system and should be carefully worked through as mistakes here can be costly to change later on.

Implementation
o

During the third step of the SDLC, the system is actually created. The designs worked out during earlier steps are translated into code, and hardware is built. It's during this stage that the system goes from planning to reality.

Testing and Deployment

o

Everything built to this point comes together during the fourth step of the SDLC. Components are tested individually, and the system as a whole at this stage, putting it through real-life scenarios in order to see if the system performs as expected and at the volume of activity necessary. Bugs when found should be worked out at this step. After successful testing is completed, the system is deployed and put to actual use by those it was intended for. If all went well throughout the development cycle, the final system should resemble the system defined during the first step.

Maintenance

Once deployed, maintenance is needed to keep the system running as desired. Any post design changes occur during this phase including upgrades, changes or corrections

Variable Steps
o

Since its creation, the systems development life cycle had undergone many changes. The waterfall model is useful for the creation of a well-defined system project with identifiable stages. But many modern systems require flexibility that strict adherence to the waterfall won't allow. For these projects the SDLC waterfall model works as a guide, a point of origin from which steps often occur simultaneously or may be split into smaller steps or skipped entirely as necessary.

Quality life cycle

A quality circle is a volunteer group composed of workers (or even students), usually under the leadership of their supervisor (but they can elect a team leader), who are trained to identify, analyze and solve work-related problems and present their solutions to management in order to improve the performance of the organization, and motivate and enrich the work of employees. When matured, true quality circles become self-managing, having gained the confidence of management. Quality circles are an alternative to the dehumanising concept of the division of labor, where workers or individuals are treated like robots. They bring back the concept of craftsmanship, which when operated on an individual basis is uneconomic, but when used in group form (as is the case with quality circles), it can be devastatingly powerful and enables the enrichment of the lives of the workers or students and creates harmony and high performance in the workplace. Typical topics are improving occupational safety and health, improving product design, and improvement in the workplace and manufacturing processes. The term quality circles derives from the concept of PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act) circles developed by Dr. W. Edwards Deming. Quality circles are not normally paid a share of the cost benefit of any improvements but usually a proportion of the savings made is spent on improvements to the work environment.[citation needed] They are formal groups. They meet at least once a week on company time and are trained by competent persons (usually designated as facilitators) who may be personnel and industrial relations specialists trained in human factors and the basic skills of problem identification, information gathering and analysis, basic statistics, and solution generation. [1] Quality circles are generally free to select any topic they wish (other than those related to

salary and terms and conditions of work, as there are other channels through which these issues are usually considered).[2][3] Quality circles have the advantage of continuity; the circle remains intact from project to project. (For a comparison to Quality Improvement Teams, see Juran's Quality by Des

quality control
Quality control is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in production. This approach places an emphasis on three aspects:[citation needed] 1. Elements such as controls, job management, defined and well managed processes[1] [2] , performance and integrity criteria, and identification of records 2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications 3. Soft elements, such as personnel integrity, confidence, organizational culture, motivation, team spirit, and quality relationships. The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way. Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects, and reporting to management who make the decision to allow or deny the release, whereas quality assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production, and associated processes, to avoid,

or at least minimize, issues that led to the defects in the first place.[citation needed] For contract work, particularly work awarded by government agencies, quality control issues are among the top reasons for not renewing a contract.[3]

Quality assurance
Quality assurance, or QA for short, is the systematic monitoring and evaluation of the various aspects of a project, service or facility to maximize the probability that minimum standards of quality are being attained by the production process. QA cannot absolutely guarantee the production of quality products. Two principles included in QA are: "Fit for purpose" - the product should be suitable for the intended purpose; and "Right first time" - mistakes should be eliminated. QA includes regulation of the quality of raw materials, assemblies, products and components, services related to production, and management, production and inspection processes. Quality is determined by the product users, clients or customers, not by society in general. It is not the same as 'expensive' or 'high quality'. Low priced products can be considered as having high quality if the product users determine them as such.

Steps
There are many forms of QA processes, of varying scope and depth. The application of a particular process is often customized to the production process. A typical process may include:

test of previous articles plan to improve design to include improvements and requirements manufacture with improvements review new item and improvements test of the new item