WELCOME TO SKO16 CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY SK016
Chapter Topics Hours

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

Matter Atomic Structure Periodic Table Chemical Bonding State of Matter Chemical Equilibrium Ionic Equilibria Total
matter

7 7 4 2 7 5 12 54
2

08/16/11

CHEMISTRY SK026
Chapter Topic Hours

8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0

08/16/11

Thermochemistry Electrochemistry Reaction Kinetics Intro To Organic Chemistry Hydrocarbons Aromatic Compounds Haloalkanes (Alkyl halides) Hydroxy compounds
matter

4 6 7 4 8 3 4 3
3

CHEMISTRY SK026
Chapter Topic Hour

16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0

Carbonyl Carboxylic acids & Derivatives Amines Amino acids and Proteins Polymers

4 4 5 2 1

08/16/11

matter

ASSESSMENT
1. COURSEWORK (20%) Continuous evaluation (tutorial/test/quiz) - 10% Practical work - 10% 2. MID-SEMESTER EXAMINATION - 10%

3. FINAL EXAMINATION (70%) Paper 1 (30 multiple choice questions) - 30% Paper 2 (Part A-structured) (Part B-long structured) -100%
08/16/11 matter 5

REFERENCE BOOKS
CHEMISTRY ,9th Ed. Raymond Chang, McGraw-Hill CHEMISTRY The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change, 3rd Ed. Martin Silberberg, McGraw Hill CHEMISTRY The Central Science, 9th Ed. Theodore L.Brown, H.Eugene LeMay,Jr, Bruce E Bursten, Pearson Education GENERAL CHEMISTRY Principle & Structure, 6th Ed. James E Brady, John Wiley and Sons.

08/16/11

matter

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY Principle and Modern Applications, 8th Ed. Ralph H. Petrucci, William S. Harwood, Prentice-Hall ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 7th Ed T.W.Graham Solomon,Craig B.Fryhle, John Wiley and Sons ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 4th Ed L.G. Wade, Jr, Prentice Hall ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 6th Ed John McMurry, Thompson Brooks/Cole

08/16/11

matter

Chapter 1 : MATTER
1.1 Atoms and Molecules 1.2 Mole Concept 1.3 Stoichiometry

08/16/11

matter

1.1 Atoms and Molecules

08/16/11

matter

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be able to: (a) Describe proton, electron and neutron in terms of the relative mass and relative charge. (b) Define proton number, Z, nucleon number, A and isotope. (c) Write isotope notation.
08/16/11 matter 10

Introduction
Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass. e.g: air, water, animals, trees, atoms, etc Matter may consists of atoms, molecules or ions.

08/16/11

matter

11

Classifying Matter

08/16/11

matter

12

 A substance is a form of matter that has a definite or constant composition and distinct properties. Example: H2O, NH3, O2 A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their identity. Example : air, milk, cement

08/16/11

matter

13

An element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. Example : Na, K, Al,Fe A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportion. Example : CO2, H2O, CuO

Three States of Matter

SOLID
08/16/11

LIQUID
matter

GAS
15

1.1 Atoms and Molecules

a) Atoms
An atom is the smallest unit of a chemical element/compound. In an atom, there are 3 subatomic particles: - Proton (p) - Neutron (n) - Electron (e)

08/16/11

matter

16

Modern Model of the Atom

Electrons move around the region of the atom.

08/16/11 matter 17

All neutral atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons they contain. Proton number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom of an element (which is equal to the number of electrons). Protons number is also known as atomic number. Nucleon number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of the atom of an element. Also known as mass number.

Subatomic Particles
Particle Mass (gram) Charge (Coulomb) Charge (units)

Electron (e) Proton (p) Neutron (n)

9.1 x 10-28 1.67 x 10-24 1.67 x 10-24

-1.6 x 10-19 +1.6 x 10-19 0

-1 +1 0

08/16/11

matter

19

Isotope
Isotopes are two or more atoms of the same element that have the same proton number in their nucleus but different nucleon number.

08/16/11

matter

20

Examples:

1 1

2 1

H(D)

3 1

H(T)

235 92

238 92

Isotope Notation
An atom can be represented by an isotope notation ( atomic symbol )
X= Z = A= =
08/16/11 matter

Element symbol Proton number of X (p) Nucleon number of X p+n

22

Nucleon number of mercury, A = 202

Total charge on the ion

Proton number of mercury, Z = 80

The number of neutrons =AZ = 202 80 = 122

matter 23

08/16/11

 In

a neutral atom: number of protons equals number of electrons a positive ion: number of protons is more than number of electrons

In

In

a negative ion: number of protons is less than number of electrons

Exercise 1
Give the number of protons, neutrons, electrons and charge in each of the following species: Symbol Proton
200 80
63 29

Number of : Neutron Electron

Charge

Hg

Cu

17 8
59 27
08/16/11

O2

Co 3+
matter 25

Exercise 2
Write the appropriate notation for each of the following nuclide :
Species Number of : Notation for Proton Neutron Electron nuclide 2 1 1 7 2 2 1 7
matter

A B C D
08/16/11

2 0 1 10
26

b) Molecules
A molecule consists of a small number of atoms joined together by bonds.

08/16/11

matter

27

A diatomic molecule Contains only two atoms Ex : H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO A polyatomic molecule Contains more than two atoms Ex : O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

08/16/11

matter

28

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, student should be able to : (a) Define relative atomic mass, Ar and relative molecular mass, Mr based on the C-12 scale. (b) Calculate the average atomic mass of an element given the relative abundance of isotopes or a mass spectrum.
08/16/11 matter 29

Relative Mass
i. Relative Atomic Mass, Ar A mass of one atom of an element compared to 1/12 mass of one atom of 12C with the mass 12.000 amu
Mass of one atom of element Re lative atomic mass, A r = 1 X Mass of one atom of 12 C 12

08/16/11

matter

30

 Mass of an atom is often expressed in atomic mass unit, amu (or u). Atomic mass unit, amu is defined to be one twelfth of the mass of 12C atom Mass of a 12C atom is given a value of exactly 12 amu 1 u = 1.6605387 10-24 g The relative isotopic mass is the mass of an atom, scaled with 12C.
08/16/11 31

Example 1
Determine the relative atomic mass of an element Y if the ratio of the atomic mass of Y to carbon-12 atom is 0.45

ANSWER:

08/16/11

matter

32

ii) Relative Molecular Mass, Mr A mass of one molecule of a compound compared to 1/12 mass of one atom of 12C with the mass 12.000amu
Relative = 1 12 molecular mass, Mr Mass of one molecule x Mass of one atom of

12

08/16/11

matter

33

The relative molecular mass of a compound is the summation of the relative atomic masses of all atoms in a molecular formula.

Example 2
Calculate the relative molecular mass of C5H5N, Ar C = 12.01 Ar H = 1.01 Ar N = 14.01

08/16/11

matter

35

MASS SPECTROMETER
An atom is very light and its mass cannot be measured directly A mass spectrometer is an instrument used to measure the precise masses and relative quantity of atoms and molecules

08/16/11

36

08/16/11

matter

37

Mass Spectrum of Monoatomic Elements Modern mass spectrum converts the abundance into percent abundance

08/16/11

38

Mass Spectrum of Magnesium

Relative abundance

63 8.1 9.1 24 25 26

The mass spectrum of Mg shows that Mg consists of 3 isotopes: 24Mg, 25Mg and 26 Mg. The height of each line is proportional to the abundance of each isotope.
m/e 24 (amu) Mg is the most abundant of

the 3 isotopes

08/16/11

matter

39

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, student should be able to : (a) Calculate the average atomic mass of an element given the relative abundances of isotopes or a mass spectrum.

08/16/11

matter

40

How to calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar from mass spectrum?

Ar is calculated using data from the mass spectrum. The average of atomic masses of the entire elements isotope as found in a particular environment is the relative atomic mass, Ar of the atom.
Average atomic mass =
08/16/11

(isotopic mass abundance ) abundance

matter 41

Example 1: Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon from the mass spectrum.

08/16/11

42

Solution: Average atomic mass of Ne =

(% abundance isotopic mass) = % abundanc e
( 9 .05 2 0 ) + ( 0 . 3 2 u1 ) + ( 9 . 2 2 u ( 9 .05 + 0 . 3 + 9 . 2 ) 2) u

= 20.2 u Relative atomic mass Ne = 20.2

Example 2: Copper occurs naturally as mixture of 69.09% of 63Cu and 30.91% of 65Cu. The isotopic masses of 63Cu and 65Cu are 62.93 u and 64.93 u respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of copper.

08/16/11

44

Solution:
Average atomic mass of Cu
( 6 .90

(% abundance isotopic mass) = % abundance

6 .29 3 ) + ( 3 .09 1 6 .49 9 u ( 6 .90 9+ 3 .09 ) 1 3) u

= = 63.55 u

Relative atomic mass Cu = 63.55

Example 3: Naturally occurring iridium, Ir is composed of two isotopes, 191Ir and 193Ir in the ratio of 5:8. The relative isotopic mass of 191Ir and 193 Ir are 191.021 u and 193.025 u respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Iridium

08/16/11

46

Solution:

Average atomic = ( abundance isotopic mass ) abundance mass of Ir

= =
(5 191 .021 u) + (8 193 .025 u) (5 + 8 )

192.254 u

Relative atomic mass Ir = 192.254

08/16/11 47

Mass Spectrum of Molecular Elements

A sample of chlorine which contains 2 isotopes with nucleon number 35 and 37 is analyzed in a mass spectrometer. How many peaks would be expected in the mass spectrum of chlorine?

Cl-35Cl 35 Cl-37Cl 37 Cl-37Cl

35

MASS SPECTROMETER
+ _ _

Cl2

Cl2 + e Cl2+ + 2e Cl2 + e 2Cl+ + 2e

Cl-35Cl+ 35 Cl-37Cl+ 37 Cl-37Cl+

35

Cl+ 37 Cl+
35

Mass Spectrum of Diatomic Elements

Exercise:
How many peaks would be expected in a mass spectrum of X2 which consists of 3 isotopes?

MATTER 1.2 Mole Concept

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

a) Define mole in terms of mass of

carbon-12 and Avogadros constant, NA

Avogadros Number, NA

Atoms and molecules are so small impossible to count A unit called mole (abbreviated mol) is devised to count chemical substances by weighing them A mole is the amount of matter that contains as many objects as the number of atoms in exactly 12.00 g of carbon-12 isotope The number of atoms in 12 g of 12C is called Avogadros number, NA = 6.02 x 1023

Example: 1 mol of Cu contains 6.02 1023 Cu atoms

1 mol of O2 contains 6.02 1023 O2 molecules 2 6.02 1023 O atoms 1 mol of NH3 contains 6.02 1023 NH3 molecules 6.02 1023 N atoms 3 6.02 1023 H atoms

1 mol of CuCl2 contains 6.02 1023 2+ ions Cu 2 6.02 1023 Cl- ions

Mole and Mass

Example: Relative atomic mass for carbon, C = 12.01 Mass of 1 C atom = 12.01 amu Mass of 1 mol C atoms = 12.01 g Mass of 1 mol C atoms consists of 6.02 x 1023 C atoms = 12.01 g

1 . 20 g1 Mass of 1 C atom = 6 . 0 x1 2 20 3
= 1.995 x 10-23 g

12.01 amu = 1.995 x 10-23 g 1 amu =

1 . 9 9 x 1 5 20 3 g 1 2 . a 0 m1 u

= 1.66 x 10-23 g

Example:
From the periodic table, Ar of nitrogen, N is 14.01

The mass of 1 N atom 14.01 amu = 14.01 g The mass of 1 mol of N atoms = 14.01 g mol1 The molar mass of N atom = The molar mass of nitrogen gas 28.02 g mol1 =

The nucleon number of N = 14

Mr of CH4 is 16.05 The mass of 1 CH4 molecule = 16.05 amu The mass of 1 mol of CH4 molecules = 16.05 g The molar mass of CH4 molecule = 16.05 g mol1

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be able to: (a) Interconvert between moles, mass, number of particles, molar volume of gas at STP and room temperature. (b) Define the terms empirical & molecular formulae (c) Determine empirical and molecular formulae from mass composition or combustion data.
08/16/11 MATTER 61

Example 1: Calculate the number of moles of molecules for 3.011 x 1023 molecules of oxygen gas. Solution:
6.02 x 1023 molecules of O2
3 .0
1 mol of O2 molecules

3.011 x 1023 molecules of O2

1 1 1 2 0 3 m o l e c 1 m l oe u 6 . 0 1 2 20 3 m o l e c u

= 0.5000 mol of O2 molecules

Example 2: Calculate the number of moles of atoms for x 1023 molecules of nitrogen gas.
Solution: 6.02 x 1023 molecules of N2

1.204

1 mol of N2 molecules 2 mol of N atoms

1 .2 0 1 4 2 0 3 m o l e c 2 um l eo sl 6 . 0 2 1 2 0 3 m o l e c u l e

1.204 x 1023 molecules of N2

= 0.4000 mol of N atoms

Example 3: Calculate the mass of 0.25 mol of chlorine gas.

Solution: 1 mol Cl2 0.25 mol Cl2
2 35.45 g

2 3 5 . g 4 05 . 2m 5 o l
1 m o l

18 g or

mass = mol x molar mass = 0.25 mol x (2 x 35.45 g mol-1) = 18 g

Example 4: Calculate the mass of 7.528 x 1023 molecules of methane, CH4

Solution: 6.02 x 1023 CH4 molecules (12.01 + 4(1.01)) g
1 .6 0 5g 7 . 5 21 820 3 7.528 x 1023 CH4 molecules 6 . 0 2 1 20 3

= 20.06 g

Molar Volume of Gases

Avogadro (1811) stated that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules Molar volume is a volume occupied by 1 mol of gas At standard temperature and pressure (STP), the molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.4 L mol1 Standard Temperature and Pressure 1 atm 101325 N m-2 101325 Pa 760 mmHg

273.15 K 0 C

Standard Molar Volume

08/16/11

MATTER

67

At room conditions (1 atm, 25 C), the molar volume of a gas = 24 L mol-1

Example 1:
Calculate the volume occupied by 1.60 mol of Cl2 gas at STP. Solution: At STP, 1 mol Cl2

22.4 L occupies

1.60 mol Cl2 occupies

1 . 6 0m

2 l .24 L o 1m o l
= 35.8 L
69

08/16/11

MATTER

Example 2:
Calculate the volume occupied by 19.61 g of N2 at STP Solution: 1 mol of N2 occupies 22.4 L
1 .9 6 g1 2 ( 1 4 g . m 0 1o1 ) l
1 .9 6 1 m 2 ( 1 .4 0 ) 1 of N2 occupies 1m 2 l 2 L. o o l

= 15.7 L
08/16/11 MATTER 70

Example 3:
0.50 mol methane, CH4 gas is kept in a cylinder at STP. Calculate: (a) The mass of the gas (b) The volume of the cylinder (c) The number of hydrogen atoms in the cylinder Solution: 16.05 g (a) Mass of 1 mol CH4 =

1 .6 0 5g 0 . 5m 0 o l Mass of 0.50 mol CH4 = 1m o l

08/16/11 MATTER

= 8.0 g

71

(b) At STP; 1 mol CH4 gas occupies 22.4 L

2 .2 4 L 0 . 5m 0 o l 0.50 mol CH4 gas occupies 1m o l = 11 L

(c) 1 mol of CH4 molecules 4 mol of H atoms 0.50 mol of CH4 molecules 2 mol of H atoms 1 mol of H atoms 2 mol of H atoms
08/16/11 MATTER

6.02 x 1023 atoms 2 x 6.02 x 1023 atoms

1.2 x 1024 atoms

72

Exercise
A sample of CO2 has a volume of 56 cm3 at STP. Calculate: a) The number of moles of gas molecules (0.0025 mol) a) The number of CO2 molecules (1.506 x 1021 molecules) a) The number of oxygen atoms in the sample (3.011x1021atoms) Notes:
08/16/11

1 dm3 1 dm3

= 1000 cm3 =1L

MATTER

73

Empirical And Molecular Formulae

- Empirical formula => chemical formula that shows the simplest ratio of all elements in a molecule. - Molecular formula => formula that show the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
08/16/11 MATTER 74

- The relationship between empirical formula and molecular formula is : Molecular formula = n ( empirical formula )

08/16/11

MATTER

75

Example:
A sample of hydrocarbon contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Its molar mass is 56. Determine the empirical formula and molecular formula of the compound.

08/16/11

MATTER

76

Solution:
C M a s s 8 5 . 7 H 1 4 . 3

N u m o f m S i m p

8 .57 b e r o l e s 1 .20 1
l e
E

1 .43 1 .0 1
1 . 9 8 4 2
u

= 7 . 1 3 5 = 71 4 . 1 5 8 4 s t 1r a
m

t i o

p i r i c a l C f 2H r m o

n =

5 1 4

6 . 0
9

= 3 . 9 4

M M

o o

l e f c o u r lm a = rnu (l aC 2 ) H l e f c o u r lm a = rC 4 Hl a8 u

Exercise:
A combustion of 0.202 g of an organic sample that contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen produce 0.361g carbon dioxide and 0.147 g water. If the relative molecular mass of the sample is 148, what is the molecular formula of the sample? Answer : C6H12O4

08/16/11

MATTER

79

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be able to: (a) Define and perform calculation for each of the following concentration measurements : i) molarity (M) ii) molality(m) iii) mole fraction, X iv) percentage by mass, % w/w v) percentage by volume, %v/v
08/16/11 MATTER 80

Concentration of Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances: solvent + solute(s) e.g: sugar + water sugar
water
08/16/11 MATTER

solution solute solvent

81

08/16/11

MATTER

82

Concentration of a solution can be expressed in various ways : a) molarity b) molality c) mole fraction d) percentage by mass e) percentage by volume

08/16/11

MATTER

83

a) Molarity Molarity is the number of moles of solute in 1 litre of solution

m o m o lo e f s s o l u( mt e o l ) l a Mr = t y , i v o l u o m f s e o l u ( t Li o ) n

Units of molarity: mol L-1 mol dm-3 M

08/16/11 MATTER 84

Example 1: Determine the molarity of a solution containing 29.22 g of sodium chloride, NaCl in a 2.00 L solution.

Solution:

=l

nN V
s o

a lu

l t io n

=
=

2 .92 2 m ( 2 .29 9+ 3 .54 )5 2 .0 0 L

0.250 mol L-1

Example 2: How many grams of calcium chloride, CaCl2 should be used to prepare 250.00 mL solution with a concentration of 0.500 M

Solution: n
C a 2C

=l M
=

a 2C

s o l u t i o n

. 5
C

0 1 0 2 m5
a 2C l

0o . l 10 L003 L

a o s Cs a 2 C= ln f

x m

o m a ar s s l

= ( 0 . 5 02 05 0 . 10 003 ) m o l ( 4 0 . 0 8 + 2 ( 31 5 . 4

1 3 . 9

b) Molality
Molality is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent
m o m o lo e f s s o l am = i t y , l m a os fs s o l u( mt e o l ) l v ( e k ng t )

Units of molality: molal m

08/16/11 MATTER

mol kg-1

89

Example: What is the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of CaCl2 in 271 g of water?

Solution:

nC

3 .2 0 g C= l -1 2 4 .0 0 8+ 2 ( 3 5 g . m 4 5o ) l
o l g

3 .2 0 m 8 o l a o l Ci t a y 2 C= l 1 1 . 9 0 3 f 2 7 1 0 k

= 1 . 0m 6 ok g 1 l

Exercise: Calculate the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 24.52 g of sulphuric acid in 200.00 mL of distilled water. (Density of water = 1 g mL-1) Ans = 1.250 mol kg-1

c) Mole Fraction (X)

Mole fraction is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of all component present. For a solution containing A, B and C:
M of rl a c ot if o AnA =, X nA nA = nT nA + nB + nC

08/16/11

MATTER

93

Mol fraction is always smaller than 1 The total mol fraction in a mixture (solution) is equal to one. XA + XB + XC + X.. = 1 Mole fraction has no unit (dimensionless) since it is a ratio of two similar quantities.
08/16/11 MATTER 94

Example: A sample of ethanol, C2H5OH contains 200.0 g of ethanol and 150.0 g of water. Calculate the mole fraction of (a) ethanol (b) water in the solution.

Solution:
n
e t h a n o=

2 0 . 00 g l ( 2 ( 1 2 + .5 0 ( 11 ). + 01 16 ) . g0 m 0 )o1 l

a t e =r

1 5 . 00 g 1 ( 2 ( 1 + 10 61 . ) g0 m 0 )o l .
2 0 . 0 0 m o l 4 .5 0 7 2 0 . 0 0 m o + l 1 5 . 0 0 m 4 .5 0 7 1 .8 0 2
0 . 3 4 7 7

e t h a n =o l

o l

a t e =r

1 0 . 3 4 7 7 = 0 . 6 5 2 3

d) Percentage by Mass (%w/w)

Percentage by mass is defined as the percentage of the mass of solute per mass of solution.

% w w = m

a o s fs s o l u t e x1 0 0 a o s fs s o l u t i o n

Note: Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

08/16/11 MATTER 98

Example: A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride, KCl is dissolved in 54.362 g of water. What is the percent by mass of KCl in the solution? Solution:
% m 0 .8 9 g 2 a =s s 1 0% 0 0 . 8 g 9 + 52 4 . 3g 6 2 = 1 . 6 1 %

Exercise: A solution is made by dissolving 4.2 g of sodium chloride, NaCl in 100.00 mL of water. Calculate the mass percent of sodium chloride in the solution. Answer = 4.0%

e) Percentage by Volume (%V / V)

Percentage by volume is defined as the percentage of volume of solute in milliliter per volume of solution in milliliter.

% v

v o l u o m sf oe l u t e = x1 0 0 v v o l u o m sf oe l u t i o n

D
08/16/11

a os sf s o l u t i o e n os ifs t o y l u t= i o n v o l u om f s e o l u t i o
MATTER 101

o t e :

Example 1: 25 mL of benzene is mixed with 125 mL of acetone. Calculate the volume percent of benzene solution. Solution:
2 5m L % v o l u =m e 1 0 0 % 2 5m +L 1 2 m 5 L

= 1

Example 2: A sample of 250.00 mL ethanol is labeled as 35.5% (v/v) ethanol. How many milliliters of ethanol does the solution contain?

Solution:

Ve t % v o l u o mfe t e h a = o l n Vs o
Ve
t h a

h a n o l l u t i o n

1 0% 0

3 .5 5 % 2 5 . 0 0 0m = o l n 1 0 0 %

8 8 .m 8 L

Example 3: A 6.25 m of sodium hydroxide, NaOH solution has has a density of 1.33 g mL-1 at 20 C. Calculate the concentration NaOH in: (a) molarity (b) mole fraction (c) percent by mass

Solution:
( a M) nN = Vs
a o O l u H t i o n

6 . 2 5 t h e

m r e

o f N a O i s 6 . 2 5

H m

f o r a s o l u t i o n k g o f w a t e r ; V
s o l u

c o o n Nf s a i s O t s H 1 o a f n 6 d

=t i o

a s

s so o l u

l su

t i o n

t i o

m m

a s so l su =t

i o N

nm

N a

a a sO + sH o

m l a

aa t se r s r 9 m + a 1 s s 6 o f N +

a N s a sO = H = = 6 2

O m H

. 2 ( 2 2o. 9 5 m l 5 0 g

. 0 1 0

a s so l su =t =

i o

n2

5 2 0
1

0 5 0

g g

1 2 g 5 . 3 g m3

s o

l u

=t

i o

1 1

6 .2 5 m o 2 5 0 3 1 0 L .3 3

l
L

= 6 . 6 5

m 1 o l

( b X) N 1 n

=H

nN nN o
a

O+ nH w

O a

H t e r

k g =r

t 6 e . r2 c5 o m n
r

to a l i no sf

t e

m
=

s a st e o ml a ar o s f ws
w

a
0

t e

r
1

1 ( 2

0 g0

( 1 +. 10 61 . ) g0 m 0
6 .2 5m o l 1 0 0 0 + l o m o 1 .80 2

o )

=H

6 .2

5m

= 0 . 1 0 1

( c %)

( w o / wf

N)

a= O m =

a N s a sO H a N s a sO+ mH a

H w

s a st 0

1
e r

2 5g0 1 5 g 0+ 1 0 g0 0

= 2 0 . 0 %

Exercise: An 8.00%(w/w) aqueous solution of ammonia has a density of 0.9651 g mL-1. Calculate the (a) molality (b) molarity (c) mole fraction of the NH3 solution
Answer: a) 5.10 mol kg-1 b) 4.53 mol L-1 c) 0.0842

MATTER 1.3 Stoichiometry

Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to: a) Determine the oxidation number of an element in a chemical formula. b) Write and balance : i) Chemical equation by inspection method ii) redox equation by ion-electron method

Balancing Chemical Equation

A chemical equation shows a chemical reaction using symbols for the reactants and products. The formulae of the reactants are written on the left side of the equation while the products are on the right.

08/16/11

MATTER

114

Example:

xA +

yB

zC +

wD

Reactants

Products

08/16/11

MATTER

115

 A chemical equation must have an equal number of atoms of each element on each side of the arrow The number x, y, z and w, showing the relative number of molecules reacting, are called the stoichiometric coefficients. A balanced equation should contain the smallest possible whole-number coefficients The methods to balance an equation: a) Inspection method b) Ion-electron method

08/16/11

MATTER

116

Inspection Method
1. Write down the unbalanced equation. Write the correct formulae for the reactants and products. 1. Balance the metallic atom, followed by nonmetallic atoms. 1. Balance the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. 1. Check to ensure that the total number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of equation.

08/16/11

MATTER

117

Example: Balance the chemical equation by applying the inspection method. NH3 + CuO Cu + N2 + H2O

08/16/11

MATTER

118

Exercise
Balance the chemical equation below by applying inspection method. 1. Fe(OH)3 + H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O 2. C6H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O 3. N2H4 + H2O2 HNO3 + H2O 4. ClO2 + H2O HClO3 + HCl

08/16/11

MATTER

119

Redox Reaction
Mainly for redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction

08/16/11

MATTER

120

Oxidation is defined as a process of electron loss. The substance undergoes oxidation loses one or more electrons. increase in oxidation number act as an reducing agent (electron donor)

Half equation representing oxidation:

Mg Mg2+ 2e Fe2+ Fe3+ + e 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e

08/16/11

MATTER

121

Reduction is defined as a process of electron gain. The substance undergoes reduction

gains one or more electrons. decrease in oxidation number act as an oxidizing agent (electron acceptor)

Half equation representing reduction: Br2 + 2e BrSn4+ + 2e Sn2+ Al3+ + 3e Al

Oxidation numbers of any atoms can be determined by applying the following rules: 1. For monoatomic ions, oxidation number = the charge on the ion e.g: ion oxidation number Na+ +1 Cl-1 Al3+ +3 S2-2

08/16/11

MATTER

123

2. For free elements, e.g: Na, Fe, O2, Br2, P4, S8 oxidation number on each atom = 0 1. For most cases, oxidation number for O = -2 H = +1 Halogens = -1

08/16/11

MATTER

124

Exception: 1. H bonded to metal (e.g: NaH, MgH2) oxidation number for H = -1 1. Halogen bonded to oxygen (e.g: Cl2O7) number for halogen = +ve oxidation

1. In a neutral compound (e.g: H2O, KMnO4) the total of oxidation number of every atoms that made up the molecule = 0 1. In a polyatomic ion (e.g: MnO4-, NO3-) the total oxidation number of every atoms that made up the molecule = net charge on the ion

08/16/11

MATTER

125

Exercise
1. Assign the oxidation number of Mn in the following chemical compounds. i. MnO2 ii. MnO41. Assign the oxidation number of Cl in the following chemical compounds. i. KClO3 ii. Cl2O721. Assign the oxidation number of following: i. Cr in K2Cr2O7 ii. U in UO22+ iii. C in C2O42-

08/16/11

MATTER

126

Balancing Redox Reaction

Redox reaction may occur in acidic and basic solutions. Follow the steps systematically so that equations become easier to balance.

08/16/11

MATTER

127

Balancing Redox Reaction In Acidic Solution Fe2+ + MnO4- Fe3+ + Mn2+

1. Separate the equation into two halfreactions: reduction reaction and oxidation reaction i. Fe2+ Fe3+ ii. MnO4- Mn2+
08/16/11 MATTER 128

1. Balance atoms other than O and H in each half-reaction separately i. ii. Fe2+ Fe3+ MnO4- Mn2+

08/16/11

MATTER

129

3. Add H2O to balance the O atoms Add H+ to balance the H atoms i. Fe2+ Fe3+ ii. MnO4- + Mn2+ + 8H+ 4. Add electrons to balance the charges i. Fe2+ Fe3+ + ii. MnO4- + 8H+ + 1 e 5e
130 08/16/11 MATTER

4H2O

Mn2+ + 4H2O

3.Multiply each half-reaction by an integer, so that number of electron lost in one half-reaction equals the number gained in the other. i. 5 x (Fe2+ Fe3+ + 1e) 5Fe2+ 5Fe3+ + 5e MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O

ii.

08/16/11

MATTER

131

1. Add the two half-reactions and simplify where possible by canceling the species appearing on both sides of the equation. i. 5Fe2+ 5Fe3+ + 5e ii. MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O ___________________________________ 5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O ___________________________________

5 .C h e c k t h e e q u a t i o n t o a r e s t a h me e n u m b oe f r e o a f c a h t a n d s ta h me e t o t ao ln c b h o a t r h g e s

5 F 2 e+ +

-n +

O 8+ H

5 F 3 e+ +

M2 ++n

4 2O

T o t a l c r he aa r c g t ea Tn ot t a l c p h r ao r d g u e c = 5 ( + - 21 )) ++ (8 ( + =1 ) 5 ( + 3 ) + ( + 2 ) = + - 1 0 + 8 = + 1 5 + ( + 2 ) = + 1 7 = + 1 7

Exercise: In Acidic Solution

C2O42- + MnO4- + H+ CO2 + Mn2+ + H2O Solution :

08/16/11

MATTER

134

Balancing Redox Reaction In Basic Solution

1. Firstly balance the equation as in acidic solution. 1. Then, add OH- to both sides of the equation so that it can be combined with H+ to form H2O. 1. The number of OH- added is equal to the number of H+ in the equation.

08/16/11

MATTER

135

Example: In Basic Solution

Cr(OH)3 + IO3- + OH- CrO32- + I- + H2O

08/16/11

MATTER

136

Exercise:
1. 2. 3. 4. H2O2 + MnO4- + H+ O2 + Mn2+ + H2O Zn + SO42(acidic medium) + H2O Zn2+ + SO2 + 4OH(basic medium) + H+ Mn2+ + CO2 + H2O (acidic medium) (basic medium)

MnO4- + C2O42-

Cl2 ClO3- + Cl-

08/16/11

MATTER

137

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction. A chemical equation can be interpreted in terms of molecules, moles, mass or even volume.

08/16/11

MATTER

138

C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

1 molecule of C3H8 reacts with 5 molecules of O2 to produce 3 molecules of CO2 and 4 molecules of H2O 6.02 x 1023 molecules of C3H8 reacts with 5(6.02 x 1023) molecules of O2 to produce 3(6.02 x 1023) molecules of CO2 and 4(6.02 x 1023) molecules of H2O

C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

1 mol of C3H8 reacts with 5 moles of O2 to produce 3 moles of CO2 and 4 moles of H2O 44.09 g of C3H8 reacts with 160.00 g of O2 to produce 132.03 g of CO2 and 72.06 g of H2O 5 moles of C3H8 reacts with 25 moles of O2 to produce 15 moles of CO2 and 20 moles of H2O

At room condition, 25 C and 1 atm pressure; 22.4 dm3 of C3H8 reacts with 5(22.4 dm3) of O2 to produce 3(22.4 dm3) of CO2

Example 1: How many grams of water are produced in the oxidation of 0.125 mol of glucose? C6H12O6(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Solution: From the balanced equation; 1 mol C6H12O6 produce 6 mol H2O 0.125 mol C6H12O6 produce

0 .1

H 2 m 5 o 6 lm 2O o 1m o l

mass of H2O = (0.125 x 6) mol x (2.02 + 16.00) g mol-1 = 13.5 g

Example 2: Ethene, C2H4 burns in excess oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas and water vapour. (a) Write a balance equation of the reaction (b) If 20.0 dm3 of carbon dioxide gas is produced in the reaction at STP, how many grams of ethene are used?

Solution: (a) C2H4 + (b)

O2

CO2 +

H2O

22.4 dm3 is the volume of 1 mol CO2

20.0 dm3 is the volume of

2 .00 d

m CO2 m 1 m
o 1l m o l
3

2 mol CO2 produced by 1 mol C2H4 mol CO2 produced by

2 .24 d

2 C2H.400 2 .24

2 .00 m 2 .24 2 m

a e st h s a

2 .0 0 = e 2 .2 4 m n 2

1 o xl [ 2 ( 1 2 + .4 0 ( 11 ). g0 m 1 -)o ]

1 2 . 5

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be able to: a) Define the limiting reactant and percentage yield b) Perfome stoichiometric calculations using mole concept including limiting reactant and percentage yield.

Limiting Reactant/Reagent
Limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely consumed in a reaction and limits the amount of product formed Excess reactant is the reactant present in quantity greater than necessary to react with the quantity of limiting reactant

08/16/11

MATTER

148

Example: 3H2 + N2 2NH3 If 6 moles of hydrogen is mixed with 6 moles of nitrogen, how many moles of ammonia will be produced? Solution: 3 mol H2 reacts with 6 mol H2 reacts with

1 mol N2

6 m

1m o l 3 m o
m2 o

o l
l

N2 is the excess reactant H2 is the limiting reactant limits the amount of products formed 3 mol H2 produce 2 mol NH3

6 mol H2 produce

6 m

2 lm o 3 m o

o l

= 4

o 3l

or 1 mol N2 6 mol N2

react with 3 mol H2 react with

6 m

3 mol NH3 l o lm o 1m o l
m
2

= 1 8

o l

i s

n o t

e n o u g h o f

l i m i t i n g r e a c t a n t H2 l i m i t s t h e a m o u n t

3 mol H2 6 mol N2

produce produce

2 mol NH3

6 m

2 lm mol NH3 o o l 3 m o l

= 4 mol NH3

Exercise: Consider the reaction: 2 Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2 AlCl3(s) A mixture of 2.75 moles of Al and 5.00 moles of Cl2 are allowed to react. (a) What is the limiting reactant? (b) How many moles of AlCl3 are formed? (c) How many moles of the reactant remain at the end of the reaction?

08/16/11

MATTER

154

PERCENTAGE YIELD
The amount of product predicted by a balanced equation is the theoretical yield The theoretical yield is never obtain because: 1. The reaction may undergo side reaction 2. Many reaction are reversible 3. There may be impurities in the reactants

08/16/11

MATTER

155

4. The product formed may react further to form other product 5. It may be difficult to recover all of the product from the reaction medium The amount product actually obtained in a reaction is the actual yield

08/16/11

MATTER

156

Percentage yield is the percent of the actual yield of a product to its theoretical yield

actual yield % yield = x 100 theoretica l yield

08/16/11

MATTER

157

Example 1: Benzene, C6H6 and bromine undergo reaction as follows: C6H6 + Br2 C6H5Br + HBr In an experiment, 15.0 g of benzene are mixed with excess bromine (a) Calculate the mass of bromobenzene, C6H5Br that would be produced in the reaction. (b) What is the percent yield if only 28.5 g of bromobenzene obtain from the experiment?