Need-Based Perspectives on Motivation

Motivation Defined
Motivation is the set of forces that lead people to behave in particular ways. Motivation is important in organizations because, in conjunction with ability and environment, it determines performance.

Need-Based Theories of Motivation

The need-based theories of motivation reflect a content perspective in that they attempt to describe what factor or factors motivate behavior. They try to list specific things that motivate behavior.

The Motivational Framework

Experienced need deficiencies Search for ways to satisfy needs Choice of goaldirected behaviors

Reassessment of need deficiencies

Experienced rewards or punishment

Enactment of behavioral choice (performance)

Needs and Motives in Organizations

Primary Needs
The basic physical requirements necessary to sustain life.

Secondary Needs
Requirements learned from the environment and culture in which a person lives.

Needs and Motives in Organizations

Motive
A persons reason for choosing one behavior from among several choices. Motives are derived from needs in that most behaviors are undertaken to satisfy one or more needs.

Need Theories of Motivation

The basic premise of need theories, consistent with the motivation framework introduced earlier, is that humans are motivated primarily by deficiencies in one or more important needs or need categories.

The Hierarchy of Needs

Developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s. Maslow believed that people have an innate desire to satisfy a given set of needs. Maslow believed that these needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, with the most basic needs at the foundation of the hierarchy.

The Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow believed that each need level must be satisfied before the level above it becomes important. The escalation up the hierarchy continues until the self-actualization needs become the primary motivators.

The Hierarchy of Needs

Selfactualization Esteem Affiliation Security Physiological

Fulfillment off the Job

Need Hierarchy

Fulfillment on the job Opportunities for training advancement growth, and creativity Recognition high status, increased responsibilities Work groups,clients, coworkers,supervisors Safe work, fringe benefits job security Heat, air, base salary

Education, religion, hobbies, Self Actualization Needs personal growth Approval of family, friends community Family,friends, community groups Freedom from war,pollution, violence Food, water, shelter Esteem Needs

Belongingness Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

The Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs
Adequate wages, ventilation, and comfortable temperatures and working conditions are measures taken to satisfy this most basic level of need. Security Needs Security needs can be satisfied by such things as job continuity, a grievance system, and an adequate insurance and retirement system.

The Hierarchy of Needs

Affiliation Needs
Managers can help satisfy these needs by fostering a sense of group identity and interaction among employees.

Esteem Needs
These needs are met at least partially by job titles, choice offices, merit pay increases, awards, and other forms of recognition.

The Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Actualization Needs
Achieved when people meet their full potential. These needs are the hardest to understand and the most difficult to satisfy.

ERG Theory
ERG Theory
Represents an extension and refinement of the need hierarchy theory. The ERG theory describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs. The ERG theory suggests that if people become frustrated trying to satisfy one set of needs, they will regress back to the previously satisfied set of needs.

Needs Frustration Frustration of Growth Needs

Desire or Strength Importance of Growth Needs

Needs Satisfaction Satisfaction of Growth Needs

Frustration of Relatedness Needs

Importance of Relatedness Needs

Satisfaction of Relatedness Needs

Frustration of Existence Needs

Importance of Existence Needs

Satisfaction of Existence Needs

The Dual-Structure Theory

Developed by Frederick Herzberg Herzberg conceptualized motivation as a dual structure phenomenon consisting of motivation factors and hygiene factors.
Motivation factors are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition. These factors cause motivation and satisfaction.

The Dual-Structure Theory

Motivation and hygiene factors (continued)
Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security. These factors do not necessarily lead to satisfaction. If inadequate, however, these factors can lead to dissatisfaction.

The Dual-Structure Theory

The Traditional View
Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzbergs View
Motivation Factors Satisfaction No Satisfaction

Hygiene Factors Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction

The Dual-Structure Theory

Motivation Factors - Achievement

Hygiene Factors - Supervision

- Recognition
- The Work Itself - Responsibility

- Working Conditions
- Pay and Job Security - Company Policies

- Advancement

- Relationships

Need for Achievement

Most frequently associated with the work of David McClelland. The need for achievement is the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than in the past.

Characteristics of High Need Achievers

Tend to Set Moderately Difficult Goals and Make Moderately Risky Decisions Want Immediate, Specific Feedback on Their Performance

Have a Preoccupation With Work

Assume Personal Responsibility for Getting Things Done

The Need for Affiliation

The need for human companionship. Individuals with a high need for affiliation tend to want reassurance and approval from others and usually are genuinely concerned about others feelings. People with a high need for affiliation often work in jobs with a lot of interpersonal contact.

The Need for Power

The desire to control the resources in ones environment. People with a high need for power can be successful managers if three conditions are met:
They must seek power for the betterment of the organization rather than for their own interests.

The Need for Power

Three Conditions (continued)
They must have a fairly low need for affiliation (fulfilling a personal need for power may well alienate others in the workplace). They need plenty of self-control to curb their desire for power when it threatens to interfere with effective organizational or interpersonal relationships.

Process Theories of Motivation

The process theories of motivation focus on how motivated behavior occurs. They explain how people go about satisfying their needs.

Process vs. Need-Based Theories of Motivation

Need-Based Theories Reflect a content perspective Try to list specific things that motivate behavior Process-Based Theories

Focus on how motivated behavior occurs

Explain how people go about satisfying their needs

The Equity Theory of Motivation

Equity Theory
Based on the relatively simple premise that people in organizations want to be treated fairly.

Equity
The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others.

Inequity
The belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others.

Forming Equity Perceptions

People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a four-step process
Step 1 A person evaluates how he or she is being treated by the firm. Step 2 The person forms a perception of how a comparison other is being treated. Step 3 The person compares his or her own circumstances with those of the comparison other. Step 4 On the strength of this feeling, the person may choose to pursue one or more alternatives.

The Equity Comparison Process

Equity theory describes the equity comparison process in terms of an input-to-outcome ratio

Outcome (self) Input (self)

Compared To

Outcome (other) Input (other)

Responses to Equity and Inequity

Comparison of Self with Others

Inequity
Motivation to reduce inequity 1. Change inputs 2. Change outcomes 3. Alter perceptions of self 4. Alter perceptions of others 5. Change comparisons 6. Leave situation

Equity
Motivation to maintain current situation

Evaluations and Implications

Equity theory offers managers three messages:
First, everyone in the organization needs to understand the basis for rewards.
For example, if people are to be rewarded more for high-quality work than for quantity of work, that fact needs to be clearly communicated to employees.

Evaluations and Implications

Messages offered by equity theory (continued)
Second, people tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and experience a variety of rewards, some tangible and others intangible. Finally, people base their actions on their perceptions of reality.

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Expectancy Theory
Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it. Expectancy theory is a more encompassing model of motivation than equity theory.

The Basic Expectancy Model

Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
A persons perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance.

Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy
A persons perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes.

The Basic Expectancy Model

Valence
The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness of a particular outcome. An outcome is anything that results from performing a particular behavior.

The Porter-Lawler Model

The Porter-Lawler model suggests that a high performance level, if followed by equitable rewards, may lead to increased satisfaction.

Guidelines Offered by Expectancy Theory

Determine the primary outcome each employee wants. Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals. Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.

Guidelines Offered by Expectancy Theory

Link desired outcomes and desired performance. Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations. Make sure the rewards are large enough. Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.

Major Elements of Expectancy Theory E P Expectancy Probability that effort will lead to desired performance

Valence Value of Outcome

Effort

Performance

Outcomes (pay, recognition, other rewards)

P O Expectancy Probability that performance will produce desired performance

Learning Objectives
Explain the concept of needs and describe the basic motivation process. Describe several historical perspectives on motivation. Discuss important need theories of motivation. Discuss Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivation.

Learning Objectives
Identify and summarize three other important individual needs. Describe parallels among the need theories.

Early Views of Motivation

Power
To the extent that individuals want power, this need provides motivation and could, therefore, be considered one of the first approaches to understanding motivated behavior. Hedonism The idea that people seek pleasure and comfort and try to avoid pain and discomfort.

The Scientific Management Approach

Scientific Management
Associated with the work of Frederick Taylor. Assumed that employees are motivated by money. Introduced the idea of piece rate pay.

The Human Relations Approach

Human Relations Approach
Arose from the Hawthorne studies. Suggested that people are motivated by things other than money; in particular, employees are motivated by and respond to their social environment at work. Favorable attitudes, such as job satisfaction, were presumed to result in improved employee performance.

Summary of Key Points

Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to behave as they do. Motivation starts with a need. People search for ways to satisfy their needs and then behave accordingly. A need is anything an individual requires or wants.

Summary of Key Points

The earliest view of motivation was based on the concept of hedonism, the idea that people seek pleasure and comfort and try to avoid pain and discomfort. According to Maslow, human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, from physiological to self-actualization.

Summary of Key Points

In Herzbergs dual-structure theory, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two distinct dimensions instead of opposite ends of the same dimension. Other important individual needs include the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power.