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Introduction to M.A.C
Process of study:
Purpose of Study of the Subject
What is Business? General Background and Purpose. How to find out the Results of the Business? / Need for accounting. Origin of Accounting Meaning and Definitions / Distinction of Book-keeping, Accountancy and Accounting. Accounting Principles / Rules Accounting Concepts and Accounting Conventions. Methods of Accounting i.e. Double entry system and single entry system.- Rules of Debit and Credit under English System and American System. Systems of Accounting- Cash system, Mercantile and mixed system. Basic terms used in Accounting. Maintenance of Books of Accounts, posting to subsidiary books. Preparation of Trial balance. Preparation of Final Accounts i.e., Profit & loss A/c, Balance Sheet.
What is Business?
The process of buying and selling goods/services from one person to another, with the objective of earning profit is called as Business. This process is called as Trading activity / Trading. Another meaning of Business, it also includes Manufacturing / production of articles, products, goods with the aim of earning profit is called as Business. This process is called as manufacturing activity. Of late, the service sectors like Banking, Insurance, Transportation, etc., have also been brought under the purview of Business. In every type of business activity, the profit element is included, whether it is trading, mfg, or service, etc., but the level of profit will differ from person to person and from business to business.
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(3) The third category of doing the business is by a Company, which is to be registered under The Companies Act, 1956. If, the business is conducted by min 2 persons and maximum unlimited people, it is called as Public Ltd., Co., or its also called as Ltd., Co.,. If, the business is conducted by min 2 persons and maximum 50 people, it is called as Pvt., Ltd., Co., There are other various form of Business Organizations viz, Co-operative Societies, H.U.F., etc., In gist, the main objective / purpose of any form of business organization is to earn profit.
The Govt., of India, has also given some concession to the business community in regarding the maintenance of business records. It has given the freedom / liberty to the businessmen to follow their own principles according to their customs and practice in maintaining the records of the business. Eg. In case of some business community, they maintain their Books of Accounts from Amavasya Diwali i.e. blue moon day of previous year to the preceeding day of Amavasya i.e. blue moon day, in the next year. In case of M.N.C.s operating in India, they follow the Calendar Year i.e. Jan Dec. In total, whatever the accounting period, the businessmen has to maintain the Books of Accounts/follow the year, they have to produce the financial records to the statutory authorities for a total period of 365 days or 12 months or 1 year, i.e. from 01st April to 31st March. Since, it is very difficult to remember many transactions that are taking place in the business in a day and over a period of time, it is suggested / advised to put it in writing.
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What is Profit?
Profit is the extra money included between the cost price and the selling price. Profit is the reward for the businessman, who has undertaken the risks of mobilizing capital, resources and conducting the business. All businessmen anticipate profit at the end of the financial year. Sometimes, the business may not reap the profit, it may incur loss, which the businessmen have to bear. The loss may be due to reasons best known for the owner of it may be beyond his control.
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(4) To Indicate Earning capacity and Financial Position of the business unit, which will help the owners and various other parties.
(5) To meet the Statutory formalities i.e. Govt., rules and regulations. To file the details of the business to Income Tax Authorities and others. (6) To assist the management in decision Making, which the accounting aspects / book keeping will help to give the required information. (7) To depict / give true position of the business as a whole.
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Division of Accountancy
The study of this subject i.e. M.A.C., is a combination of 3 partsAccounts, costing and management will help you to manage the business effectively and control the unnecessary expenses in the business. Since the subject Accountancy deals with financial figures, it is called as Financial Accounting. Financial Accountancy is the main root on which the other accountancy branches/twigs like Cost Accountancy, Management Accountancy, etc., have been evolved. (1) Financial Accounting transactions related to business in terms of financial figures i.e. money. A Post mortem study. (2) Cost Accountancy Transactions dealing with cost control techniques in the business i.e. either trading / manufacturing/ service sector by applying management principles and by following accountancy rules. A Biopsy. (3) Management Accounting deals with decision making based on financial a/cs and cost a/cs. Estimations / Projections for future in terms of planning, production, marketing, budgeting, etc.,.
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Origin of Accounting The process of Accounting was in existence in India, even during the times of Chandra Gupta Maurya. His finance minister Kautilya, who has written a famous book called Arthashastra, the process of accounting and auditing. Similarly, Luca Paicoli, an Italian in 15th Century is considered to be the father of accounting. He laid the principles of Double Entry System in 1494. Likewise, its only of late, that the study of accountancy has been taken up very seriously.
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Accounts: Accounts are the classified & summarised details of the various business transactions.
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Session 2
Accounting Principles / Rules
Accounting Concepts
1) Money Measurement concept 2) Business Entity concept 3)Going Concern concept 4) Cost concept 5) Dual concept / Equation concept 6) Accounting Period concept 7) Matching concept 8) Objective / Evidence concept 9) Realisation concept 10) Accrual concept
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5) Deferred Revenue Expenditure(D.R.E.): These are the expenses which are spent during the initial stage of the business or expense incurred during formation of the company. Eg: Huge advertisement expenses, R & D Expenses, Preliminary expenses. The D.R.E.is not transferred to profitability statement once for all. Every year, certain amount OR certain percentage of this expense is transferred to P & L A/c till it is written off completely or it becomes nil balance. This is done so, because the benefits of this expense is reaped by the business unit, after the business comes into existence. The uncharged balance amount in this a/c. will be shown as Miscellaneous Expenditure ( to the extent not written off) the Assets side of the Balance Sheet.
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2)
3)
4) 5) 6) (a)
Entity = strictly it means existing but referred to in case of companies or corporations, registered under the Acts. Business = the process of buying & selling with an intention of earning profit, because business is not a Charity for show. Transaction = To do a piece of business, which involves transfer of money from one person (buyer) and transfer of property by another person for the sake of money (Seller). a) Cash transactions: immediate receipt of money on transfer of product/ goods/ services from one person to another person. b) Credit transactions: Does not involve immediate receipt of money, but only moneys worth of product/ goods/ services is transferred from one person to another person. The amount is paid / collected later, i.e. after a few days of the transaction. Capital =Initial Amount contributed / invested to start the business. Drawings = Withdrawing / taking back of goods / cash from the business for personal use/ consumption, by the business man. Assets = A valuable thing owned by the business concern, without which the business cannot be conducted. It is of the following types: Tangible Assets: Which can be seen / felt . Eg: Land & Building, Cash, Inventories (R.M., WIP, F.G,etc.,).
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Session 6
Meaning:
A system of Accounting in which both the aspects of a transaction are recorded as per prescribed rules is called Double Entry System. Double Entry System is a system of Accounting in which, out of the 2 aspects of a transaction, one aspect is debited and the other aspect is credited. The debits & credits are decided by applying certain rules.
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Every business transaction, has a two fold effect receiving of benefit of some value and giving of benefit of the same value. The double entry system requires that the two entries for a transaction should be made in two different a/cs., simultaneously for the same amount and on the opposite sides of the account.
Features:
1) 2) 3) 4) It is based on dual-aspect concept. There must be two parties for each transaction. Each transaction has two aspects, the debit aspect / receiving aspect and the credit aspect / giving aspect. In every transaction, there are 2 accounts.
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5) 6) 7) 8)
9)
Every debit has a corresponding credit and every credit has a corresponding debit. Every a/c. is divided into parts / sides i.e. L.H.S.= Debit side and R.H.S. = Credit Side. Both personal aspect (affecting personal a/c.) and impersonal aspects (affecting real or nominal a/cs.)are recorded. The total of debits given to all the a/cs. must always be equal to he total of credits given to all the a/cs. D.E.S. does not mean that recording the transactions 2 times. It is designated as completeentry system.
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2)
3) Helps in detecting of errors in the books of account in time and to reduce the chances of errors and frauds.
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4) 5) 6) 7)
To check the arithmetical accuracy of the entries in the books of a/c, through preparation of trial balance. To ascertain the true profit or loss of the business through preparation of trading and p & l a/c. To ascertain the true financial positions of the business through preparation of Balance sheet. To know the progress of the business from year to year.
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Classification of Accounts
For the purpose of recording the entries, accounts are classified into two types namely A) The English System and B) The American System. A) The English System: Under this system, the a/cs. are broadly classified into two types namely (1) Personal Accounts and (2) Impersonal Accounts. 1) Personal Accounts: It records the dealings of the business with persons or firms. The accounts of individuals like Rama A/c. Krishna A/c. OR the accounts may be of artificial persons like firms or companies like Bharat & Co., Nandini Pvt. Ltd., banks, clubs, etc., 2) Impersonal Accounts: These Accounts are of 2 types viz. Real Accounts and Nominal Accounts.
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Contd.,
a) Real Accounts are the accounts of assets, properties or things owned by a business like Buildings A/c., Furniture A/c., Cash a/c. etc., b) Nominal Accounts are accounts of expenses, losses, gains and profits. They are called nominal because they exist only in name and cannot be seen. Eg: Salaries A/c., Rent A/c., Interest Paid A/c., Discount Received A/c. etc., Thus, under English System, accounts are broadly divided into three categories for making entries in the books of accounts, which are as follows: (a) Personal Accounts (b) Real Accounts and (c ) Nominal Accounts
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B)
The American System: Under this system 5 types of Accounts are to be maintained namely: 1) Capital Accounts 2) Asset Accounts 3) Liability A/cs. 4) Incomes & Gains A/c. 5) A/cs of Expenses & Losses. Capital Accounts = Amount Invested by the proprietor is recorded and no other transactions. Asset A/cs. =Assets like Land & Bldgs., P& m, F & F, Stock, cash in hand, Debtors, B/R, etc., only. Liability A/cs. = Amount payable to others such as Creditors, overdraft, B/P, Income received in advance, etc.,
1) 2) 3)
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4) Incomes & Gains = Income is the money received periodically, especially from ones business or investments or lands. Gains is an increment in wealth that results either from operations or from holding assets Or liabilities. 5) Expenses & Losses = Expenditure refers to the amount spent on or cost of acquiring a service or using up an asset. Loss refers to the act of losing. A businessman loses when he allows a commission or discount.
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Contd.,
2) Under the American System:
a) In the case of Capital Accounts: Debit decreases the capital and Credit increases the capital. b) In the case of Assets: Debit increases in an asset Credit decreases in an asset. c) In the case of Nominal Accounts: Debit decreases the liability and Credit increases the liability.
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d) In the case of Incomes & Gains: Debit decreases incomes & gains and Credit increases incomes & gains. e) In the case of Nominal Accounts: Debit increases the expenses & losses and Credit decreases the expenses & losses.
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Systems of Accounting
There are 3 systems of Book-keeping viz: 1) Cash System 2) Mercantile System 3) Mixed System 1) Cash System: In this system, all the expenditure is treated as expenses only, when cash is actually paid. Similarly all incomes really received only when cash is actually received. Thus, the difference b/w the total income received in cash and the total expenditure incurred n cash represents the Profit OR Loss of a business concern for a particular accounting period. b) This system is generally practiced by advocates, brokers, chartered accountants, auditors, doctors, small traders Sports Clubs, etc.,. Receipts & Pmts A/c. is prepared to determine the excess expenses over income (Loss) / excess income over expenses (Profit).
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2) Mercantile / Accrual System: In this system, all transactions relating to a period are recorded disregarding whether the income is received or expenses is incurred. In this system, outstanding & prepaid expenses, accrued and incomes received in advance are taken into consideration. In this system, Profit & Loss A/c. is prepared for ascertaining the Profit / Loss of the Business. This system is popular and all the business houses follow even to this day. 3) Mixed System: This is a system under which both the cash & mercantile systems are followed. some records are maintained under the cash system and some others are kept under the Mercantile system. But, this system is not popular and only a few business people follow even to day.
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Single Entry System of Book-keeping: As against the D..E.S. of Book-keeping, there is also a system called the S.E.S. of Book-keeping. S.E.S.: Under this system, only a Cash Book is maintained and no other ledger a/c. is maintained. Further, a rough book is maintained for recording transactions relating to Personal a/cs, Real a/cs., and Nominal a/cs are not maintained at all. In some cases, only one aspect of the transaction is recorded. EG: When a Credit sale takes place, only the credit aspect is recorded in the Sales A/c. and the debit aspect is ignored by not debiting the Customers a/c.
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In case of some transactions, both the aspects are of the transaction is recorded. Eg: When cash is received from a customer, it is entered in two places the cash book and the personal account of the customer concerned. In case of some transactions, both the aspects are of the transaction is recorded. Eg: When cash is received from a customer, it is entered in two places the cash book and the customer a/c. The customer a/c. shows only Credit balance and not the debit particulars like sales details. In case of some transactions, no entry can be found in the ledger accounts, both the aspects are of the transaction is omitted. Eg: Depreciation, Interest charges paid to Bank, etc,
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There are no hard & fast rules under this system. There are plenty of disadvantages, only few business organi sations follow this method. Therefore it is not widely adopted by big business organisations. Assignment Topic First, twenty students, Sum No. 1, pg.101, Second -25 students, sum No. 2, pg-110, Third 20 students, sum no.1 Whole class, sum no. 3, pg.120
Note : Please do not refer to the answer from the text book, Or copy from your friends answer. Try to solve on your own / you can take the help of your friend.
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Session 7 Journal
Journal is the gateway to ledger.
Meaning:
Journal is a book in which accounts to be debited and credited are written. The word Jour means a day. Therefore, journal means a daily record of transactions. The art of recording a transaction in the journal is called as Journalising. The record itself is called a journal entry. Journal is a book of Primary Record. The transactions can be directly recorded in the Ledger, but there is a greater chance of committing mistakes / many mistakes. Hence, it is advisable to record first in the journal and then proceed.
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Proforma of a Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Rs. Credit Rs.
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1)
2)
3)
The first column i.e. the date column is used for recording the date of transaction. The second column i.e. the particulars column is use for recording the journal entry for the transaction. While making an entry, the name of the a/c. to be debited should be written first and it is essential to write the word Dr. (Debtor). In the next line, after leaving little space, the name of the a/c. should be credited and it should start with To. Then a brief explanation should be given as to why one a/c. is debited and the other a/c. is credited, which is called as narration, which should be given in brackets. The third column i.e. L.F. means ledger folio, which is used for recording the page number of the ledger to which the journal entry is transferred. This column has to be filled-in, only after the journal entry is posted.
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4)
5)
6)
The fourth column i.e. the Debit column is used for recording the amount to be debited. The amount to be debited should be entered against the name of the account to be debited. The fifth column, i.e., the Credit column is used for recording the amount to be credited. The amount to be credited should be entered against the name of the account to be credited. A line should be drawn only in the particulars column, to indicate that the entry is over or to differentiate another entry.
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Process in Journalising
Identify the nature of transaction, i.e., whether it is cash or credit. Then ascertain the head of Accounts to be recorded. Categorise the head of Account i.e., Personal, Real or Nominal and then pass the entry.
(Being cash introduced into the business by the proprietor Mr. Gopal)
Simple & Compound Entries: A simple journal entry is an entry for a transaction with one a/c. being debited and another a/c. being credited. On the other hand, when there are two or more transactions of the same nature on the same day, like purchase of goods, purchase of furniture, machinery, etc., a single entry may be passed for all of them. Such an entry is called as Compound Entry, which involves more than one debit or more than one credit.
P.S.: Rest of the theory portion in this chapter, to be learnt by the students themselves as pedagogy.
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Session 8 Ledger
Ledger is the permanent storehouse of all the transactions. Meaning: The term ledger is derived from the Dutch word Legger which means to lie. Therefore, ledger means a book where the various accounts lie (i.e. a/cs. are kept). Ledger is a book in which various accounts are opened and maintained. It contains all types of a/c.-Real, Personal & Nominal, including whether an expense or an income, for a given period of time, showing their net effect.
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Features of a Ledger
1) 2) 3) It is an analytical record of transactions i.e. classified transactions. It is a derived or secondary record, i.e. it is prepared after the journal. It is a Book of final entry. In the words of William Pickles, Ledger is the destination of the entries made in the subsidiary books or journals. It is called the Principal Book of accounts. Hence it is rightly called as The King of Books of Account. It serves a permanent record of transactions.
4) 5)
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Format of a LEDGER
Form 1:
Dr.
------Account
CR.
Date
Particulars
Jf
Amount Rs.
Date
Particulars
Jf
Amount Rs.
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Format of a LEDGER
Form 2 : Dr.
Date Particulars
------Account
JF Debit Rs. Credit Rs.
CR.
Dr./Cr. Balance Rs.
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Ledger Posting
The process of transferring of entries from the journal to the ledger is called Posting or Ledger Posting. Posting may be done immediately after an entry has been recorded in the journal or at anyconvenient date after the transactions have been journalised.
5)
The opening balance of each liability, including capital a/c., should be entered on the credit side of the concerned asset a/c. with the words By Bal. b/d.
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Sums on opening of various ledger a/cs. 1) Illustrtation No. 1 Reddy & Appannaiah, Pg.98 2) Illn no.9 B.S.Ramana, pg. no.266 3) Kadkol pg. no.
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Meaning:
Subsidiary Books or Special Journals are the various books of original entry maintained under the modern system of accounting for recording the various business transactions, as and when they take place.
Features: 1.
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