What Does It Mean to Understand Some Mathematics?

ICME-12 Seoul, Korea July 10, 2012

Zalman Usiskin z-usiskin@uchicago.edu

mathematical

Hans Freudenthal, Didactical Phenomenology of Mathematical Structures (1983)

my perspective

classroom

James Hiebert and Thomas Carpenter, Learning and Teaching with Understanding in Handbook of Research on Mathematics Learning and Teaching (1992)

Conflicting views of doing and understanding

I hear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and I understand. Confucius (6th century B.C.) They can do it but they dont understand what they are doing teachers (21st century A.D.)

Behaviorists and Cognitivists

Most teachers are both behaviorists and cognitivists. Behaviorists want students to answer questions correctly and do not necessarily care how they got the answer. Cognitivists want to know what students are thinking as they work and typically ask them to show their work.

Is skill a type of understanding?

Richard Skemp (1976) wrote, regarding instrumental (procedural) understanding and relational (conceptual) understanding: I now believe that there are two effectively different subjects being taught under the same name, mathematics. (emphasis his)

What is mathematics?
Mathematics is an activity involving objects and the relations among them; the objects may be abstract or abstractions from real objects.

The activity consists of concepts and problems or questions. Mathematicians employ and invent concepts to understand questions and problems; they pose questions and problems to delineate concepts.

The full understanding of mathematics in schools requires a view of understanding from...

the standpoint of the learner the standpoint of the education policy maker the standpoint of the teacher the standpoint of the mathematician.

The full understanding of mathematics in schools requires a view of understanding from...

the standpoint of the learner the standpoint of the education policy maker the standpoint of the teacher the standpoint of the research mathematician.

The range of school mathematics in the U.S. Common Core State Standards (CCSSM, 2010)
Statistics Yes Physics No Formal logic No Applied mathematics Yes Telling time Yes Reading tables Yes Locating places on maps No Sudoku Puzzles No Using a calculator Mixed message

The full understanding of mathematics in schools requires a view of understanding from...

the standpoint of the learner the standpoint of educational policy the standpoint of the teacher the standpoint of the research mathematician.

Classics displaying the mathematicians perspective on understanding

Jacques Hadamard, The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field (1945) G. H. Hardy, A Mathematicians Apology (1940) George Polya, Mathematical Discovery I: On Understanding, Learning, and Teaching Problem Solving (1962) and How to Solve It (1957)

Understanding the lives of mathematicians

Reuben Hersh and Vera John-Steiner, Loving and Hating Mathematics: Challenging the Myths of Mathematical Life (2010)

The full understanding of mathematics in schools requires a view of understanding from...

the standpoint of the learner the standpoint of educational policy the standpoint of the teacher the standpoint of the mathematician.

Polyas four phases in problem-solving (from How To Solve It)

1. 2. 3. 4. Understanding the problem Devising a plan Carrying out the plan Looking back

Understanding the problem (from Polyas How To Solve It)

What does the problem say can it be stated in your own words? What is the unknown? What are the data [givens]? What is the condition [or conditions]? Is it possible to satisfy the condition[s]? Will a figure help? Is it necessary or helpful to introduce suitable notation?

A person does not understand some mathematics when that person acts blindly to the prompts in the situation, or acts incorrectly to the prompts.

Understanding multiplication of fractions

Meanings for fraction an essential part of understanding fractions

a number between 0 and 1 (or between 0 and -1?) (He earns only a fraction of what she earns.) a (positive?) number that is not an integer (I want an answer that is a fraction.) division indicated with a fraction bar or a slash (or some other symbol?) (an expression of the form a/b.) a number expressible in the form a/b where a is a whole number and b is a positive whole number. (the meaning in the U.S. Common Core)

Different algorithms for multiplying fractions depending on the numbers involved

2 4 3 5 2 4 1 3 5

2 6 3 5
2 4 3 2 3 3 2

2 3 3 5 2 60 3

Dimension 1:

Skill-algorithm understanding of the multiplication of fractions

requires making decisions is choosing an appropriate algorithm depending on the numbers in the fractions is being able to check an answer using a different method than was employed to get the answer

Dimension 2:

Property-proof understanding of the multiplication of fractions

We wish to justify:

Property-proof understanding of the multiplication of fractions

Variants of the algorithms for property-proof understanding

2 4 a c 3 5 b d

2 6 a kb 2 3 a b 3 5 b d 3 5 b d
2 a 2 a 60 kb 8 c 3 b 3 b
2 3 a b 3 2 b a

2 4 a n + 1 3 5 b

c d

Dimension 3: Use-application

understanding of the multiplication of fractions

1. 2. 3. 4.

Area: A farm is rectangular and 2/3 km by 4/5 km . What is its area? Rate factor: An animal travels at an average rate of 2 km in 3 hours (that is, 2/3 km per hour) for 48 minutes (that is, 4/5 hours), how far will it have traveled? Probability: If independent events have probabilities 2/3 and 4/5, what is the probability of both happening? Size change: If a segment on a sheet of paper is 4/5 unit long and is put into a copy machine to be copied at 2/3 its original length, what will be the length of the segment on the copy? Two size changes: If something is on sale at 1/3 off (you pay 2/3) and you get a 20% discount (to 4/5 the sale price) for opening a charge account, your cost is what part of the original price?

5.

Use-application understanding of the multiplication of fractions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Area: A farm is rectangular and 2/3 km by 4/5 km . What is its area? measure X measure Rate factor: An animal travels at an average rate of 2 km in 3 hours (that is, 2/3 km per hour) for 48 minutes (that is, 4/5 hours), how far will it have traveled? rate X measure Probability: If independent events have probabilities 2/3 and 4/5, what is the probability of both happening? scalar X scalar Size change: If a segment on a sheet of paper is 4/5 unit long and is put into a copy machine to be copied at 2/3 its original length, what will be the length of the segment on the copy? scalar X measure Two size changes: If something is on sale at 1/3 off (you pay 2/3) and you get a 20% discount (to 4/5 the sale price) for opening a charge account, your cost is what part of the original price? scalar X scalar (X measure)

Dimension 4: Representation-metaphor

understanding of the multiplication of fractions

2/3 4/5

4/5

Understanding congruence in geometry

General definition of congruence (dynamic)(informal)(after Euclid)

Two figures are congruent* if and only if one can be placed on top of the other.

* Euclid called such figures equal.

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Specific definitions of congruence (static)(formal)(after Hilbert)

Two segments are congruent if and only if they have the same length. Two angles are congruent if and only if they have the same measure. Two triangles are congruent if and only if there is a correspondence between their vertices with corresponding sides having the same length and corresponding angles having the same measure. Two circles are congruent if and only if they have the same radius.

General definition of congruence (using transformations)(formal)(after Klein)

Two figures are congruent if and only if one can be reflected, rotated, and/or translated onto the position of the other. (dynamic)

Two figures and are congruent if and only if there is a distance-preserving transformation that maps onto . (static)

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Dimension 1: Skill-algorithm

understanding of congruence includes

Drawing, constructing, and visualizing congruent figures, including images under isometries. Identifying the transformation that maps one figure onto a congruent figure. Recognizing congruent and non-congruent figures.

Cube without perspective

Cube with perspective

Dimension 2: Property-proof

understanding of congruence includes

Conditions that cause two triangles or other figures to be congruent (SAS, SSS, etc.). Properties of each of the isometries and relationships among the isometries. Derivations using congruence of the basic formulas for the areas of triangles and other polygons. Relations between congruence and similarity.

Dimension 3: Use-application

understanding of congruence includes

Congruence in structures and mass-produced parts. Congruence and symmetry in nature. Applications of isometries (rotations and turns, translations and slides, reflections and mirrors, glide reflections and walks). Tessellations and packing problems. Applications of measurements of angles, lengths, areas, and volumes

Dimension 4: Representation-metaphor

understanding of congruence includes

Placement of congruent figures on geoboards. Algebraic formulas for images of figures in the coordinate plane under isometries. Matrices for isometries. Descriptions of isometries using complex numbers.

Dimensions of mathematical understanding

Skill-algorithm understanding
from the rote application of an algorithm through the selection and comparison of algorithms to the invention of new algorithms (calculators and computers included)

Property-proof understanding
from the rote justification of a property through the derivation of properties to the proofs of new properties

Use-application understanding
from the rote application of mathematics in the real world through the use of mathematical models to the invention of new models

Representation-metaphor understanding
from the rote representations of mathematical ideas through the analysis of such representations to the invention of new representations

A fifth dimension of mathematical understanding for learners

Skill-algorithm understanding
from the rote application of an algorithm through the selection and comparison of algorithms to the invention of new algorithms (calculators and computers included)

Property-proof understanding
from the rote justification of a property through the derivation of properties to the proofs of new properties

Use-application understanding
from the rote application of mathematics in the real world through the use of mathematical models to the invention of new models

Representation-metaphor understanding
from the rote representations of mathematical ideas through the analysis of such representations to the invention of new representations

History-culture understanding
from rote facts through the analysis and comparison of mathematics in cultures to the discovery of new connections or historical themes.

Dimension 5:

History-culture understanding includes

The invention or discovery of mathematics. The growth of mathematics and its applications over time. The differences among cultures of formal and informal mathematics, including ethnomathematics. The notion of relative truth vs. absolute truth and relations with philosophy. Recreational mathematics and other mathematics done just for fun.

Applications of the multi-dimensional view of understanding

clarifies the meaning of concept broadens options for developing concepts opposes the one-dimensional models of item difficulty helps to develop richer curricula provides a tool for analyzing curricula (ideal, implemented, or learned)

A CCSSM Fraction Standard (Grade 5)

Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication to multiply a fraction or whole number by a fraction. Interpret the product (a/b) q as a parts of a partition of q into b equal parts; equivalently, as the result of a sequence of operations a q b. For example, use a visual fraction model to show (2/3) 4 = 8/3, and create a story context for this equation. Do the same with (2/3) (4/5) = 8/15. (In general, (a/b) (c/d) = ac/bd.)

A CCSSM Fraction Standard (Grade 5)

Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication to multiply a fraction or whole number by a fraction. Interpret the product (a/b) q as a parts of a partition of q into b equal parts (Vocabulary); equivalently, as the result of a sequence of operations a q b (Property-Proof). For example, use a visual fraction model to show (2/3) 4 = 8/3(Representation-Metaphor), and create a story context for this equation (Use-Application). Do the same with (2/3) (4/5) = 8/15. (In general, (a/b) (c/d) = ac/bd.) (Skill-Algorithm)

A CCSSM Congruence Standard (Grade 8)

Understand congruence using physical models, transparencies, or geometry software. 1. Verify experimentally the properties of rotations, reflections, and translations (Skill-Algorithm and Property-Proof): a. Lines are taken to lines, and line segments to line segments of the same length. b. Angles are taken to angles of the same measure. c. Parallel lines are taken to parallel lines. 2. Understand that a two-dimensional figure is congruent to another if the second can be obtained from the first by a sequence of rotations, reflections, and translations (Property-Proof); given two congruent figures, describe a sequence that exhibits the congruence between them (Skill-Algorithm). 3. Describe the effect of dilations, translations, rotations, and reflections on two-dimensional figures using coordinates (Representation-Metaphor).

Frequencies of dimensions of understanding in the CCSSM standards

Totals K-5 6-8 9-12 9-12 STEM

Vocabulary SkillAlgorithm PropertyProof UseApplication Representation -Metaphor HistoryCulture Problem Solving MAXIMUM POSSIBLE Totals

51 186 196 147 118 0 13 385

21 88 67 55 46 0 7 148

18 37 47 47 30 0 1 81

11 38 61 32 32 0 2 113

1 23 21 13 10 0 3 43

385

284

180

176

71

The full understanding of mathematics in schools requires a view of understanding from...

the standpoint of the learner the standpoint of educational policy the standpoint of the teacher the standpoint of the mathematician.

Realms of understandings a teacher needs to have

Pedagogical Content Knowledge Concept Analysis Problem Analysis Connections to Other Mathematics

Pedagogical Content Knowledge includes

Designing and preparing for a lesson Explaining and representing ideas new to students Finding and analyzing student errors Responding to questions that learners have about what they are learning

Concept Analysis includes

Engaging students in justifying their actions and thinking Considering alternate definitions and their consequences Using representations to clarify concepts Recognizing and employing alternate algorithms Explaining why concepts arose and how they have changed over time Dealing with the wide range of applications of the mathematical ideas being taught

Problem Analysis includes

Engaging students in problem solving Discussing alternate ways of approaching problems with and without calculator and computer technology Examining different student solution methods Offering extensions and generalizations of problems

Connections to Other Mathematics include

Extending and generalizing properties and mathematical arguments Explaining how ideas studied in school relate to ideas students may encounter or have encountered in other mathematics study Realizing the implications for student learning of spending too little or too much time on a given topic Comparing different resources treatments of a mathematical procedure or topic

Summary
Understanding mathematics is different for the policy maker, the mathematician, the teacher and the student. Mathematics consists of concepts and problems; this talk has mainly been about understanding concepts.
(See Polya for understanding problems and problem-solving.)

There are at least five dimensions to the understanding of mathematical concepts: Skill-algorithm, Property-proof, Use-application, Representation-metaphor, and History-culture.

Thank you!
For a copy of the ppt, e-mail z-usiskin@uchicago.edu