ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 13e

CHAPTER 9: Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach

9-1 What Are Major Threats to Forest Ecosystems?

Concept 9-1 Ecologically valuable forest ecosystems are being cut and burned at unsustainable rates in many parts of the world.

Types of Forests
Forests cover 30% of earths land surface Old-growth forests Second-growth forests Tree plantation

25 yrs

Weak trees removed

Clear cut

30 yrs Years of growth 15 yrs

Seedlings planted

5 yrs

10 yrs
Fig. 9-3, p. 180

Natural Capital
Forests
Ecological Services
Support energy flow and chemical cycling

Economic Services
Fuelwood
Lumber Pulp to make paper

Reduce soil erosion

Absorb and release water

Purify water and air

Mining

Influence local and regional climate

Livestock grazing

Store atmospheric carbon

Recreation

Provide numerous wildlife habitats

Jobs
Fig. 9-4, p. 181

Harvest Methods
Step one: build roads
Erosion Invasive species Open up for human invasion

Step two: logging operations

Selective cutting Clear cutting Strip cutting

Cleared plots New highway for grazing Cleared plots for agriculture Old growth

Highway

Stepped Art
Fig. 9-5, p. 182

(a) Selective cutting (b) Clear-cutting

Clear stream Muddy stream (c) Strip cutting Uncut Cut 1 year ago Dirt road Cut 310 years ago

Uncut

Clear stream Stepped Art Fig. 9-6, p. 182

Forests and Fires

Surface fires
Burn undergrowth only Cool fire Ecological benefits

Crown fires
Burn the entire tree Hot fire Occur in forests with lack of surface fires

Fig. 9-8, p. 183

Fig. 9-8, p. 183

Loss of Original Forests

Deforestation 46% in 8,000 years, most since 1950 Most in tropical areas, developing countries Estimated loss of 40% intact forests within next 20 years

Fig. 9-9, p. 184

Tropical Forests
Cover 6% of earths land area Habitat for 50% of terrestrial plants and animals
Vulnerable to extinction specialized niches

Rapid loss of 50,000170,000 km2 per year

Causes of Tropical Forest Deforestation and Degradation

Population growth and poverty Economic reasons
Logging Ranching Farming

Government subsidies

9-2 How Should We Manage and Sustain Forests?

Concept 9-2 We can sustain forests by emphasizing the economic value of their ecological services, removing government subsidies that hasten their destruction, protecting oldgrowth forests, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and planting trees.

Fig. 9-13, p. 188

Ways to Reduce Tropical Deforestation

Debt-for-nature swaps Conservation concessions Gentler logging methods Encourage use of wood substitutes

Solutions
Sustaining Tropical Forests
Prevention
Protect the most diverse and endangered areas Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry Subsidize only sustainable forest use Protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps and conservation concessions Rehabilitate degraded areas

Restoration
Encourage regrowth through secondary succession

Certify sustainably grown timber

Reduce poverty Slow population growth Concentrate farming and ranching in already-cleared areas
Fig. 9-15, p. 190

9-3 How Should We Manage and Sustain Grasslands?

Concept 9-3 We can sustain the productivity of rangeland by controlling the number and distribution of grazing livestock and by restoring degraded grasslands.

Grasslands
Provide important ecological services Second most used and altered ecosystem by humans 42% grazed by cattle, sheep, and goats rangeland (open) and pasture (fenced) Overgrazing

Fig. 9-16, p. 191

9-4 How Should We Manage and Sustain Parks and Nature Reserves?
Concept 9-4 We need to put more resources into sustaining existing parks and nature reserves and into protecting much more of the earths remaining undisturbed land area.

National Parks
>1,100 national parks in 120 countries Only 1% of parks in developing countries are protected
Local people invade parks to survive Logging Mining Poaching

Problems Protecting National Parks

Illegal logging Illegal mining Wildlife poaching Most parks too small to protect large animals Invasion of nonnative species

Nature Reserves Occupy a Fraction of Earth

12% of earths land protected Only 5% fully protected 95% reserved for human use Need for conservation
Minimum 20% of land in biodiversity reserves Protection for all biomes

Solutions for Protection

Ecological insurance policy Buffer zones around protected areas Locals to manage reserves and buffer zones United Nations: 531 biosphere reserves in 105 countries

Protecting Wilderness Protects Biodiversity

Wilderness Preserves biodiversity Centers for evolution

9-5 How Can We Help to Sustain Terrestrial Biodiversity?

Concept 9-5 We can help to sustain terrestrial biodiversity by identifying and protecting severely threatened areas (biodiversity hotspots), rehabilitating damaged ecosystems (using restoration ecology), and sharing with other species much of the land we dominate (using reconciliation ecology).

Three Principles to Protect Ecosystems

1. Map and inventory the worlds terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems 2. Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems, with a focus on biodiversity 3. Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible

Protecting Global Biodiversity Hotspots

17 megadiversity countries, mostly in tropics and subtropics
Two-thirds of biodiversity

Developing countries economically poor and biodiversity rich Protect biodiversity hotspots

Ecological Restoration
Restoration Rehabilitation Replacement Creating artificial ecosystems

Restoration Ecology
Creating new habitats to conserve species diversity in areas where people live, work, play People learn to protect local species and ecosystems Sustainable ecotourism Golden Gate Park in San Francisco

Fig. 9-20, p. 198

9-6 How Can We Help to Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity?

Concept 9-6 We can help to sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.

Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems (1)

Destroyed or degraded by human activities Coastal habitats disappearing 2-10 times faster than tropical forest Rising sea levels will destroy coral reefs and some low islands Ocean floor degradation 150 times larger than area clear-cut annually

Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems (2)

Freshwater habitat disruption
Dams Water withdrawals from rivers

Likely extinction
34% marine fish species 71% freshwater species Greater than any other group of species

Fig. 9-21, p. 199

Fig. 9-21, p. 199

Overfishing
Fishery Fishprint 157% overfishing 90% of large open-ocean fishes have disappeared since 1950

Fig. 9-22, p. 200

Why Is Protection of Marine Biodiversity So Difficult?

Human aquatic ecological footprint expanding Not visible to most people Viewed as an inexhaustible resource Most ocean areas outside jurisdiction of a country

Solutions for Marine Ecosystems

Protect endangered and threatened species Establish protected marine sanctuaries Marine reserves work well and quickly Integrated coastal management Protect existing coastal wetlands

Solutions
Managing Fisheries
Fishery Regulations Set catch limits well below the maximum sustainable yield Improve monitoring and enforcement of regulations Economic Approaches Sharply reduce or eliminate fishing subsidies Charge fees for harvesting fish and shellfish from publicly owned offshore waters Certify sustainable fisheries Protect Areas Establish no-fishing areas Establish more marine protected areas Rely more on integrated coastal management Consumer Information Label sustainably harvested fish Publicize overfished and threatened species Bycatch Use wide-meshed nets to allow escape of smaller fish Use net escape devices for seabirds and sea turtles Ban throwing edible and marketable fish back into the sea Aquaculture Restrict coastal locations for fish farms Control pollution more strictly Depend more on herbivorous fish species Nonnative Invasions Kill organisms in ship ballast water Filter organisms from ship ballast water Dump ballast water far at sea and replace with deep-sea water Fig. 9-24, p. 202

Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #1

The economic values of the important ecological services provided by the worlds ecosystems need to be included in the prices of goods and services.

Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #2

We can sustain terrestrial biodiversity by protecting severely threatened areas, restoring damaged ecosystems, and sharing with other species much of the land we dominate.

Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #3

We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.