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Chapter 16 Oscillators

Objectives
Describe the basic concept of an oscillator
Discuss the basic principles of operation of an oscillator Analyze the operation of RC and LC feedback oscillators

Describe the operation of the basic relaxation oscillator circuits


Discuss the use of a 555 timer in an oscillator circuit

Introduction
Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous signal of some type without the need of an input. These signals serve a variety of purposes. Communications systems, digital systems (including computers), and test equipment make use of oscillators.

An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive signal from a dc voltage. The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of the output to maintain the oscillations. The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit to generate a nonsinusoidal signal such as square wave.

The Oscillator

Figure 162

Basic elements of a feedback oscillator.

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Feedback Oscillator Principles


The feedback oscillator is widely used for generation of sine wave signals. The positive (in phase) feedback arrangement maintains the oscillations. The feedback gain must be kept to unity to keep the output from distorting.

Figure 163

Positive feedback produces oscillation.

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Figure 164

General conditions to sustain oscillation.

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Figure 165 When oscillation starts at t0, the condition Acl > 1 causes the sinusoidal output voltage amplitude to build up to a desired level. Then Acl decreases to 1 and maintains the desired amplitude.

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Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits


RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to frequencies of 1 Mhz or less. The three types of RC oscillators we will discuss are the Wien-bridge, the phase-shift, and the twin-T.

Figure 166

A lead-lag circuit and its response curve.

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Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits


The lead-lag circuit of a Wien-bridge oscillator reduces the input signal by 1/3 and yields a response curve as shown. The frequency of resonance can be determined by the formula below.

fr = 1/2RC

Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits


The lead-lag circuit is in the positive feedback loop of Wien-bridge oscillator. The voltage divider limits gain. The lead lag circuit is basically a bandpass with a narrow bandwidth (high Q).

Figure 167

The Wien-bridge oscillator schematic drawn in two different but equivalent ways.

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Oscillators With RC Feedback Since there is a loss of Circuits signal in the positive about 1/3 of the

feedback loop, the voltage-divider ratio must be adjusted such that a positive feedback loop gain of 1 is produced. This requires a closed-loop gain of 3. The ratio of R1 and R2 can be set to achieve this.

Figure 169

Conditions for start-up and sustained oscillations.

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Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits


To start the oscillations an initial gain greater than 1 must be achieved. The back-to-back zener diode arrangement is one way of achieving this. When dc is first applied the zeners appear as opens. This allows the slight amount of positive feedback from turn on noise to pass.

Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits


The lead-lag circuit narrows the feedback to allow just the desired frequency of these turn transients to pass. The higher gain allows reinforcement until the breakover voltage for the zeners is reached.

Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits Automatic gain control is necessary to maintain a gain of exact

unity. The zener arrangement for gain control is simple but produces distortion because of the nonlinearity of zener diodes. A JFET in the negative feedback loop can be used to precisely control the gain. After the initial startup and the output signal increases the JFET is biased such that the negative feedback keeps the gain at precisely 1.

Figure 1612

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Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits Automatic gain control is necessary to maintain a gain of exact

unity. The zener arrangement for gain control is simple but produces distortion because of the nonlinearity of zener diodes. A JFET in the negative feedback loop can be used to precisely control the gain. After the initial startup and the output signal increases the JFET is biased such that the negative feedback keeps the gain at precisely 1.

Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits to provide 180
phase shift that when coupled with the 180 of the op-amp itself provides the necessary feedback to sustain oscillations. The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the oscillations. The frequency of resonance for the this type is similar to any RC circuit oscillator.

fr = 1/26RC

Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits


The twin-T utilizes a band-stop arrangement of RC circuits to block all but the frequency of operation in the negative feedback loop. The only frequency allowed to effectively oscillate is the frequency of resonance.

Figure 1614

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Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits


For frequencies above 1 Mhz, LC feedback oscillators are used. We will discuss the Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley, Armstrong, and crystal-controlled oscillators. Transistors are used as the active device in these types.

The Colpitts oscillator utilizes a tank circuit (LC) in the feedback loop. The resonant frequency can be determined by the formula below. Since the input impedance affects the Q, an FET is a better choice for the active device.

Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits

fr = 1/2LCT

Figure 1617

The attenuation of the tank circuit is the output of the tank (Vf) divided by the input to the tank (Vout).

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Figure 1618

Zin of the amplifier loads the feedback circuit and lowers its Q, thus lowering the resonant frequency.

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Figure 1619

A basic FET Colpitts oscillator.

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Figure 1620

Oscillator loading.

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Figure 1621

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Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits


The Clapp is similar to the Colpitts with exception to the additional capacitor in the tank circuit. The same formula applies as for the Colpitts.

Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits


The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Clapp and Colpitts. The tank circuit has two inductors and one capacitor. The calculation of the resonant frequency is the same.

Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits


The Armstrong uses transformer coupling in the feedback loop. For this reason the Armstrong is not as popular.

Oscillators With LC Feedback The crystal-controlled Circuits most stable and oscillator is the

accurate of all oscillators. A crystal has a natural frequency of resonance. Quartz material can be cut or shaped to have a certain frequency. We can better understand the use of a crystal in the operation of an oscillator by viewing its electrical equivalent.

Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits


Since crystal has natural resonant frequencies of 20 Mhz or less, generation of higher frequencies is attained by operating the crystal in what is called the overtone mode. Overtones are usually odd multiples of a crystals fundamental.

Figure 1626

Basic crystal oscillators.

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1627

Basic triangular-wave oscillator.

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Relaxation Oscillators
Relaxation oscillators make use of an RC timing and a device that changes states to generate a periodic waveform. This triangularwave oscillator makes use of a comparator and integrator to actually produce both a triangle wave and square wave.

Relaxation Oscillators
Output levels are set by the ratio of R2 and R3 times the maximum output of the comparator. The frequency of output can be determined by the formula below.

fr = 1/4R1C(R2/R3)

Figure 1630

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Relaxation Oscillators
The voltage-controlled sawtooth oscillators frequency can be changed by a variable dc control voltage. One possible type uses a programmable unijunction transistor.

Relaxation Oscillators
The forward voltage of the PUT (VF) determines the frequency of the output. The formula below shows the relationship.

f = VIN/RiC(1/Vp-VF)

Figure 1632

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1633

Output of the circuit in Figure 1632.

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

A square wave relaxation oscillator uses the charging and discharging of the capacitor to cause the op-amp to switch states rapidly and produce a square wave. The RC time constant determines the frequency.

Relaxation Oscillators

Figure 1636

Internal diagram of a 555 integrated circuit timer. (IC pin numbers are in parentheses.)

Thomas L. Floyd Electronic Devices, 7e

Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

The 555 Timer As An Oscillator


The 555 timer is an integrated circuit that can be used in many applications. We will discuss its operation as a square wave oscillator. The frequency of output is determined by the external components R1, R2, and C. The formula below shows the relationship.

fr = 1.44/(R1 + 2R2)C

Detailed operation is described within the text.

Figure 1638

Operation of the 555 timer in the astable mode.

Thomas L. Floyd Electronic Devices, 7e

Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

The 555 Timer As An Oscillator


Duty cycles can be adjusted by values of R1 and R2. The duty cycle is limited to 50% with this arrangement. To have duty cycles less than 50%, a diode is placed across R2. The two formulas show the relationship. (see following slide)

Duty Cycle >50 % = R1 + R2/R1 + 2R2 x 100%


Duty Cycle <50 % w/diode = R1/R1 + R2 x 100%

Figure 1639 Frequency of oscillation (free-running frequency) of a 555 timer in the astable mode as a function of Cext and R1 + 2R2. The sloped lines are values of R1 + 2R2.

Thomas L. Floyd Electronic Devices, 7e

Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

The 555 Timer As An Oscillator

Figure 1641

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

The 555 Timer As An Oscillator


The 555 timer by be operated as a VCO with a control voltage applied to the CONT input (pin 5).

Figure 1643 The VCO output frequency varies inversely with VCONT because the charging and discharging time of Cext is directly dependent on the control voltage.

Thomas L. Floyd Electronic Devices, 7e

Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Summary
Sinusoidal oscillators operate with positive feedback.

Two conditions for oscillation are 0 feedback phase shift and feedback loop gain of 1.
The initial startup requires the gain to be momentarily greater than 1. RC oscillators include the Wien-bridge, phase shift, and twin-T. LC oscillators include the Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley, Armstrong, and crystal.

Summary
The crystal actually uses a crystal as the LC tank circuit and is very stable and accurate. A voltage controlled oscillators (VCO) frequency is controlled by a dc control voltage. A 555 timer is a versatile integrated circuit that can be used as a square wave oscillator or pulse generator.

Figure 1644

Front panel of the function generator.

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1645

Block diagram of the function generator.

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Figure 1646

Schematic of the function generator.

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Figure 1647

The function generator circuit boards.

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Figure 1648

Results of tests on four faulty units. The scope screen shows the output voltage in each case.

Thomas L. Floyd Electronic Devices, 7e

Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1649

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Figure 1650 Multisim file circuits are identified with a CD logo and are in the Problems folder on your CD-ROM. Filenames correspond to figure numbers (e.g., F16-50).

Thomas L. Floyd Electronic Devices, 7e

Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1651

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1652

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1653

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1654

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1655

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 1656

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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

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