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Objectives
Describe the basic concept of an oscillator
Discuss the basic principles of operation of an oscillator Analyze the operation of RC and LC feedback oscillators
Introduction
Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous signal of some type without the need of an input. These signals serve a variety of purposes. Communications systems, digital systems (including computers), and test equipment make use of oscillators.
An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive signal from a dc voltage. The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of the output to maintain the oscillations. The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit to generate a nonsinusoidal signal such as square wave.
The Oscillator
Figure 162
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Figure 163
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Figure 164
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Figure 165 When oscillation starts at t0, the condition Acl > 1 causes the sinusoidal output voltage amplitude to build up to a desired level. Then Acl decreases to 1 and maintains the desired amplitude.
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Figure 166
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fr = 1/2RC
Figure 167
The Wien-bridge oscillator schematic drawn in two different but equivalent ways.
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Oscillators With RC Feedback Since there is a loss of Circuits signal in the positive about 1/3 of the
feedback loop, the voltage-divider ratio must be adjusted such that a positive feedback loop gain of 1 is produced. This requires a closed-loop gain of 3. The ratio of R1 and R2 can be set to achieve this.
Figure 169
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Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits Automatic gain control is necessary to maintain a gain of exact
unity. The zener arrangement for gain control is simple but produces distortion because of the nonlinearity of zener diodes. A JFET in the negative feedback loop can be used to precisely control the gain. After the initial startup and the output signal increases the JFET is biased such that the negative feedback keeps the gain at precisely 1.
Figure 1612
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Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits Automatic gain control is necessary to maintain a gain of exact
unity. The zener arrangement for gain control is simple but produces distortion because of the nonlinearity of zener diodes. A JFET in the negative feedback loop can be used to precisely control the gain. After the initial startup and the output signal increases the JFET is biased such that the negative feedback keeps the gain at precisely 1.
Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits to provide 180
phase shift that when coupled with the 180 of the op-amp itself provides the necessary feedback to sustain oscillations. The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the oscillations. The frequency of resonance for the this type is similar to any RC circuit oscillator.
fr = 1/26RC
Figure 1614
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The Colpitts oscillator utilizes a tank circuit (LC) in the feedback loop. The resonant frequency can be determined by the formula below. Since the input impedance affects the Q, an FET is a better choice for the active device.
fr = 1/2LCT
Figure 1617
The attenuation of the tank circuit is the output of the tank (Vf) divided by the input to the tank (Vout).
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Figure 1618
Zin of the amplifier loads the feedback circuit and lowers its Q, thus lowering the resonant frequency.
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Figure 1619
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Figure 1620
Oscillator loading.
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Figure 1621
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Oscillators With LC Feedback The crystal-controlled Circuits most stable and oscillator is the
accurate of all oscillators. A crystal has a natural frequency of resonance. Quartz material can be cut or shaped to have a certain frequency. We can better understand the use of a crystal in the operation of an oscillator by viewing its electrical equivalent.
Figure 1626
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Figure 1627
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Relaxation Oscillators
Relaxation oscillators make use of an RC timing and a device that changes states to generate a periodic waveform. This triangularwave oscillator makes use of a comparator and integrator to actually produce both a triangle wave and square wave.
Relaxation Oscillators
Output levels are set by the ratio of R2 and R3 times the maximum output of the comparator. The frequency of output can be determined by the formula below.
fr = 1/4R1C(R2/R3)
Figure 1630
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Relaxation Oscillators
The voltage-controlled sawtooth oscillators frequency can be changed by a variable dc control voltage. One possible type uses a programmable unijunction transistor.
Relaxation Oscillators
The forward voltage of the PUT (VF) determines the frequency of the output. The formula below shows the relationship.
f = VIN/RiC(1/Vp-VF)
Figure 1632
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Figure 1633
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A square wave relaxation oscillator uses the charging and discharging of the capacitor to cause the op-amp to switch states rapidly and produce a square wave. The RC time constant determines the frequency.
Relaxation Oscillators
Figure 1636
Internal diagram of a 555 integrated circuit timer. (IC pin numbers are in parentheses.)
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fr = 1.44/(R1 + 2R2)C
Figure 1638
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Figure 1639 Frequency of oscillation (free-running frequency) of a 555 timer in the astable mode as a function of Cext and R1 + 2R2. The sloped lines are values of R1 + 2R2.
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Figure 1641
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Figure 1643 The VCO output frequency varies inversely with VCONT because the charging and discharging time of Cext is directly dependent on the control voltage.
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Summary
Sinusoidal oscillators operate with positive feedback.
Two conditions for oscillation are 0 feedback phase shift and feedback loop gain of 1.
The initial startup requires the gain to be momentarily greater than 1. RC oscillators include the Wien-bridge, phase shift, and twin-T. LC oscillators include the Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley, Armstrong, and crystal.
Summary
The crystal actually uses a crystal as the LC tank circuit and is very stable and accurate. A voltage controlled oscillators (VCO) frequency is controlled by a dc control voltage. A 555 timer is a versatile integrated circuit that can be used as a square wave oscillator or pulse generator.
Figure 1644
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Figure 1645
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Figure 1646
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Figure 1647
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Figure 1648
Results of tests on four faulty units. The scope screen shows the output voltage in each case.
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Figure 1649
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Figure 1650 Multisim file circuits are identified with a CD logo and are in the Problems folder on your CD-ROM. Filenames correspond to figure numbers (e.g., F16-50).
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Figure 1651
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Figure 1652
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Figure 1653
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Figure 1654
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Figure 1655
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Figure 1656
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