Welding Definition

Welding is a metal joining process by applying heat sometimes with pressure and some times with intermediate or filler metal having high melting point. As per AWS:A weld as a localized coalescence of metal or non metal produced either by heating the material to suitable temp. with or with out the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone. As per IS:The weld as a union between two pieces of a metal at faces rendered plastic or liquid by heat or pressure or both.

Welding Safety

Welding Training 2012-13 TRF

Before Getting Started

Check Your Welding Equipment

Because arc welding involves an electric arc, the source of power is the first point to check. Be certain the engine/generator or transformer is in good order. Are all electrical connections tight and properly made? Is the generator or transformer safety-disconnect switch operable and have an adequate amperage rating? Are detaching plugs on smaller equipment easily accessible? Are all dials and gauges operable? Are your cables, clamps and electrode holder in good condition?

Protective Clothing

Gloves: All leather or fire resistant welding gloves (gauntlet style) in good condition. Goggles/Glasses: Tempered lenses, shade #5, good fit with little or no gap/opening for protection against sparks, flying slag and bright torch flames. Welding Helmet/Face Shield: Good condition, tight fit with proper lens shade for the work at hand. Hearing Protection: Ear plugs and/or muffs should be worn during noisy operations such as air arcing or grinding. Most welding operations are noisy.

Protective Clothing

Clothing: Made from flame retardant cloth (avoid high polyester and nylon content) , free of oil and grease. Avoid loose clothing, trousers with cuffs, open collared shirts with pockets. Leathers: Sleeves, apron or chaps should be available. Steel Toed Shoes: All leather, high-top shoes with rubber soles in good condition. Full metal toe covers should be available.

Proper Guarding In Place

To prevent accidental contact, welding machines must have mechanical and electrical protection. Guard all moving parts and insulate all current carrying components. Mechanical power transmission apparatus with clutches, gears and couplings should have these danger points screened or guarded.

Have curtains/shields/barricades to protect those working near you.

Check The Cables Frequently

It is important that the neutral wire (often referred to as the ground' wire) be fully insulated. When DC current is used this is a current-carrying wire, and becomes the 'hot' wire. Always keep them in good repair and out of water, oil, or ditches. Try to avoid abrasion caused by rubbing against sharp corners or being dragged over objects. Do not leave cables in the paths of workers and vehicles/equipment. If it is necessary to cross the line of traffic, suspend cables overhead, or cover, if possible.

Watch Those Splices

When splicing cables, make sure the connectors are well insulated and have a capacity equal to or greater than the cable. Make splices with insulated pressure connectors or welded joints. Connecting lugs should have more than one bolt for a reliable, tight connection, and complete insulation. Cables with splices within 10 feet of the holder should not be used.

Maintain Safe Electrode Holders

Holders should be kept fully insulated because they support the electrode and transmit the current from the cable to the electrode. Fully insulated holders are an added safety factor for operation in close quarters reducing the danger of striking an accidental arc. Inspect frequently and replace insulation parts as needed!

Using The Correct Current Is Important

Too little current reduces the efficiency of the operation.
Too much current causes inferior welds, overloads and damages equipment. For the correct current, refer to the operations manual supplied with the equipment. Check the current load with an amp meter if there seems to be variation.

Welding Fire Hazards

Do not use welding equipment near flammable vapors, liquids, dust or any other combustible materials. Move welding work to a safe location whenever possible, or try to remove all movable combustibles to a safe place. If neither is possible, use spark proof curtains (not tarpaulins) to confine the sparks. Weigh the fireproof curtain down tightly against the floor. An extra person is recommended as a fire guard if ignition of material is possible. A fire inspection should be performed prior to leaving a work area and for at least 30 minutes after the operation is completed. Keep shop clean in areas where welding is to be done.

Fire Hazards, cont.

Never weld or cut on containers that have held a flammable or combustible material unless the container is thoroughly cleaned or filled with an inert gas. Fire extinguishers should be nearby, of proper size, type and number for the hazards involved. Concrete floors are the safest welding locations. Wood floors can be made fire-safe by covering them with a fireproof cloth. Do not weld near electrical fittings or lines.

Electric Shock Hazards

Ground the frame of portable and stationary welding machines; as specified in the Grounding Section of the National Electrical Code. Approved plugs and receptacles are recommended for cables of portable welding machines capable of carrying full-load machine circuits. Keep welding supply cables away from power supply cables and other high tension wires.

Shock Hazards, cont.

When changing electrodes, never stand on wet or ungrounded surfaces; never use bare hands or wet gloves. Always use dry gloves and wear rubber soled shoes. Do not cool electrode holders by emersion in water. Turn off power supply when welder is not in use and before performing maintenance. Operating procedures are covered in the Electric Welding Section of the National Electrical Code.

The Keys To Eye Protection

Minimize reflective materials in the work area (paints, other wall coverings, etc.)

A tight fitting helmet in good condition. All lens components in place and in good condition.
Utilizing the proper lens shade.

Preventing Burns
Protect eyes and face from flying particles by use of safety glasses or face shield.

Wear adequate protective clothing.

Always wear leather gloves.

Wear high top shoes.

Keep collar, shirt pockets, etc. buttoned.

Handle hot metal with pliers or tongs.

Dispose of electrode stubs properly.

Commonly Welded Base Metal

Ferrous Metal Wrought Iron Carbon Steel Cast Steel Stainless Steel Cast Iron Alloy Steel Non Ferrous Metal Aluminum & it's alloy Copper & it's alloy Magnesium & it's alloy Nickel & it's alloy Zinc & it's alloy

Energy Sources For Welding

Gas Flame Electric Arc Electron Beam Laser Beam Friction Ultra Sound Explosive Electrical Resistance

Types of Welding

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Welding Applications
Ship Building Air craft construction Bridges Earth moving machinery & cranes Piping & Pipe lines Rail road equipment Chemical Process plant Power Plant Structural Building

Welding Process Model

Weld design

Process Selection

Developing Welding Procedure

Welding Operation

Testing

Information from Service condition (Field)

WELD TERMINOLOGY

WELD TERMINOLOGY

Max bead width (X) during welding will be 12 mm in GMAW processes and 2.5 to 3 times of rod dia. in SMAW. For Both Groove and fillet welds

WELD TERMINOLOGY

WELD TERMINOLOGY
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (H AZ) THROAT THICKNESS TOE

TOE

EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS PENETRATION

DEPTH OF ROOT BEAD "PENETRATION"

Arc Welding A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip, and as electrode is moved along joint, molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

SMAW
Shielded Metal Arc Welding Stick welding Arc Welding A welding process where similar materials are joined with a heating process caused by an electric arc. In the most common use, this process includes the use of a filler metal.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Equipment
A. Polarity switch B. Power cord C. Electrode holder D. Electrode E. Base metal F. Ground clamp G. Electrode lead H. Ground lead I. Amperage scale J. Amperage adjustment K. On/Off switch

L. Welder case

28

Brushing Method
Hold end of electrode about 1/4 - 1/2 inch above the surface. Lower helmet Gently brush surface of the metal with the end of the electrode. When arc starts, lift electrode 1/8 inch.
29

Tapping Method
Set up welder Hold the electrode at the travel angle and 1/4 - 1/2 inch above the metal. Quickly lower the electrode until it touches the metal and then lift it 1/8 inch.

30

SMAW ELECTRODE

Smaw Electrode consist of a straight piece of solid metallic wire called core wire, having a concentric covering or coating of Flux.

SMAW ELECTRODE
The Electrode size refers to the Dia of its core wire. Coating Factor:- The coating factor of a electrode is the ratio of coating dia to the core wire dia. C.F. = D/d As Per IS 814-1991 On the basis of coating factor electrodes are often referred to as Light-Coated Up to 1.3 CF Medium-Coated 1.3 to 1.5 CF Heavy-Coated Above 1.5 CF

Function Of Flux Coating

Providing Gas Shield around the arc. Facilitate the arc striking and maintain it. Produces slag over the weld bead. Helps to deoxidized & refine the weld metal. Support to Increase the deposition efficiency. Provide to achieve good penetration.

Electrode Coating Ingredients

Slag Forming Ingredients Gas Shielding Ingredients Deoxidizing Elements Arc Stabilizing Constituents Binding Agent Slipping Agent Productive Agent China Clay,Mica,Sodium Silicates. Cellulose,Starch,Calcium Carbonate Ferromanganese, Ferrosilicon Calcium Carbonate,Pottasium Silicate Sodium Silicate,Sugar,Asbestus Glycerin, China Clay,Talc,Mica Iron Power

Classification of Electrode Coatings

Cellulose Coating Rutile Coating a)- Fairly Viscous b)- Fluid Iron Oxide Coating a)- Inflated b)- Solid Lime fluorspar (Basic)

Cellulose Coating
Provides Deep Penetration Increased electrode burn off rate Can be use for any welding position Mainly used for D.C. Supply

Example:As Per Aws E6010,E6011 etc.

Rutile Electrode
Gives smooth weld bead a)- Viscous Type:Suitable for Butt & Fillet weld, for flat & horizontal position with A.C. b)- Fluid Type:Suitable for Vertical & over head position with D.C. Example:- As per Aws E6012,E6013,E7013 etc.

Iron Oxide Coating

a)- Inflated Type:Applicable for deep groove welding for flat position with both A.C. & D.C.

b)- Solid Type:Gives the thick covering, used for single run of fillet weld & suitable for A.C. & D.C. Example:- As per Aws E6030,E7030

Lime Fluorspar(Basic)
Low hydrogen Electrodes Suitable for all position Before use it required backing.
Example:- As per Aws E7016,E7018

Flux Coating Method

Dipping Method

Extrusion Method

Selection of Electrode
Compare with the Chemical composition of base metal. Thickness of work piece. Nature of Electrode coating. Welding position. Type of joint & run/no. passes. Type of Polarity. Weld bead geometry. Surface finish. Mechanical Properties. Cost of electrode.

ELECTRODE CATEGORY
Non Consumable Electrode

Consumable Electrode

Carbon or Graphite Electrodes

Bare Electrodes

Tungsten Electrodes

Flux Coated Electrodes

Electrode Performance Groups

Fast Freeze Electrodes
Fast Fill Electrodes Fill Freeze Electrodes Low Hydrogen Electrodes

Fast Freeze Electrodes

Quick solidification of weld pool. Deep penetrating. Recommended for vertical & over head position. Called reverse polarity electrode.

Fast Fill Electrodes

Highest deposition rate. Stable arc. Thick flux.

Shallow penetration.
Flat position and horizontal laps only

Fill Freeze Electrodes

General purpose electrodes. Medium deposition rate. Called straight polarity electrode.

Low Hydrogen Electrodes

Welding characteristics of fill-freeze.

Producing x-ray quality deposits. Less possibility of weld crack.

Designed for medium carbon and alloy steels.

Electrode Classification
Constituents of flux coating. Nature of slag. Current & polarity. Arc behavior. Welding position. Weld appearance. Quality of Weld.

Electrode Classification
E - Electrode

60 Products minimum tensile strength: 60 = 60,000 psi

E 6013

1 - Welding position: 1 = ALL, except vertical down

3 Indicates coating type (RUTILE), welding current and polarity

Electrode Classification

The AWS system designates:

1 tensile strength, 2 weld position 3 coating (flux) 4 current.

50

Electrode Classification (Example)

E7018
E indicates electrode
70 indicates 70,000 psi tensile strength

1 indicates use for welding in all positions 8 indicates low hydrogen

Care & Storage of Electrodes

Electrodes are damaged by rough treatment, temperature extremes and moisture. The should be kept in their original container until used. Electrode should be stored in dry & well ventilated store room. Storage temp. should be about 12C above that of external air temp. with 0-60% humidity. Low hydrogen electrodes should be dried in an oven at about 120C to 150C for 1 to 2 hours before use.

Electrode Angle
Travel Angle Work Angle
The travel angle is the angle of the electrode parallel to the joint.
The correct travel angle must be used for each joint.
Beads = 15o from vertical or 75o from the work. Butt joint = 15o from vertical or 75o from the work. Lap joint = 45o. T joint = 45o. Corner = 15o from vertical or 75o from the work.

Electrode Angle
The work angle is the angle of the electrode perpendicular to the joint. The appropriate angle must be used for each joint.
Beads = 90o Butt joint = 90o Lap joint = 45o T joint = 45o Corner = 90o

Arc Length
The arc length is the distance from the metal part of the electrode to the weld puddle. The best arc length is not a fixed distance, but should be approximately equal to the diameter of the electrode.

Arc Travel Speed

The speed of travel is measured in inches per minute The ideal speed can be calculated using the volume of the joint and the deposition rate of the electrode. The correct welding speed is indicated by the shape of the ripples.
Too slow = excessive width, excessive penetration Too fast = narrower width, elongated ripple pattern, shallow penetration.

Recommended = width 2-3 times diameter of electrode, uniform ripple pattern, full penetration.

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SMAW Joints
Butt Joint
Lap Joint T Joint Corner Joint

Edge Joint

57

Basic Types of Joints & Terms

Types of joints

Basic Welded Joints

Butt Joint A Joint between two members aligned Approximately in the same Plane.

Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for some Butt-Joints

Basic Welded Joints

Corner Joint
Corner joint - a joint between two members located at right angles to each other

Some Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for Corner Joints

Basic Welded Joints

T-Joint
T- joint - a joint between two members located approximately at right angles to each other in the form of a T

Some Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for T-Joint

Basic Welded Joints

Lap Joint
Lap Joint- a joint between two overlapping members

Some Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for Lap Joints

Basic Welded Joints Edge Joint

Edge joint- a joint between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly parallel members

Some Different Edge Shapes and Symbols for Edge Joints

POSITIONS IN WELDSPLATE

FLAT (1G)

HORIZONTAL (2G)

VERTICAL (3G)

OVERHEAD(4G)

FLAT (1F)

HORIZONTAL( 2F)

VERTICAL (3F)

OVERHEAD(4F)

Welding Symbol

Welding Symbol is a method of representing the weld symbol on the drawing.

Reference Line

Reference Line (Required element)

Always Horizontal

Arrow Line

Reference Line (Required element)

Arrow

Tail

Reference Line (Required element)

Arrow

Tail

Reference Line must always be horizontal, Arrow points to the line or lines on drawing which clearly identify the proposed joint or weld area.

Reference Line (Required element)

Arrow

Tail
The tail of the welding symbol is used to indicate the welding or cutting processes, as well as the welding specification, procedures, or the supplementary information to be used in making the weld.

Reference Line must always be horizontal, Arrow points to the line or lines on drawing which clearly identify the proposed joint or weld area.

Basic components of a WELDING SYMBOL

Reference Line (Required element)
Arrow connects reference line to arrow side member of joint or arrow side of joint

Arrow
Tail omitted when reference not used

Tail
The tail of the welding symbol is used to indicate the welding or cutting processes, as well as the welding specification, procedures, or the supplementary information to be used in making the weld.

All the way Around

A circle at the tangent of the arrow and the reference line means welding to be all around.

Field Weld Symbol

A flag at the tangent of the reference line and arrow means Field Weld.

Weld Symbol Terminology

OTHER SIDE/FAR SIDE ARROW SIDE/NEAR SIDE

Break in arrow means arrow side must be side that beveling or other preparation required.

Fillet Weld (Arrow Side Only)

Fillet Weld (Other Side)

Size of Fillet Weld Noted

10 10

Example of Double Bevel Groove weld

Depth of preparation or groove

10

10

Plug or Slot Weld Symbol

Arrow Side

Single-Bevel-Groove and Double Fillet weld Symbols

SMAW Welding Techniques

Weld Bead
A weld resulting from a pass

Weave Bead

Stringer Bead

Passes
Weld Pass - A single progression of welding along a joint. The result of a pass is a weld bead or layer

Fill Pass Root Pass

Cover Pass Hot Pass

Techniques
Stringer (drag) (whip) Weave Circles crescent zig zag box weave double J

Welding Defects

UNDERCUT

POROSITY

INCOMPLETE FUSION

OVERLAP

UNDERFILL

SPATTER

EXCESSIVE CONVEXITY

EXCESSIVE CONCAVITY

EXCESSIVE WELD REINFORCEMENT

INCOMPLETE PENETRATION & EXCESSIVE PENETRATION

UNACCEPTABLE WELD PROFILES

Preheat Treatment
Preheat reduces the temperature differential between the weld region and the base metal
Reduces the cooling rate, which reduces the chance of forming martensite in steels Reduces distortion and shrinkage stress Reduces the danger of weld cracking Allows hydrogen to escape

PRE HEATING OF WELD JOINTS.

Pre heating :The Operation of heating the weld joint to some pre determined Temp before start of
welding called as Pre Heating .

Why Required :
1. To Controls the differential cooling rate i.e. slow down the cooling rate in weld which creates greater resistance to cracking . 2. To reduce the stress in weld and adjacent base metal 3. To improve some mechanical property like notch toughness in weld

Processes:*

Heat the weld joint area by means of suitable heating torch before start of welding. * Use fuel or oxy fuel as per requirement. * The heating area shall be equals to base metal thk. of thickest member but not less than 75 mm in all directions . * Job shall be heated through the thickness and obtain the minimum pre heat temp at opposite surface as shown in table * For Different thick with different pre heat temperature the highest of the two shall be considered . and for alloy steel Min and max range shall be considered. * Checking of preheating shall be carried out just before arc striking and on the far side by thermal chalk or any other means .
C- 45 (t>16 mm thk) HARDOX400 (t=20 to 45 mm) SAILMA450 SAILMA- 350 SAIL HARD Had Field SS-304 any thk SS -316L any thk

Material

IS 2062(t>32 mm thk)

Pre 65 to Heat 110 Temp ( .C)

150 200

75 to 100

150 to 175

150 to 175

150

Normal Temp

Normal Temp

Normal Temp

Steel Post weld Heat Treatment and Hydrogen Cracking

Postweld heat treatment (~ 1200F) tempers any martensite that may have formed
Increase in ductility and toughness Reduction in strength and hardness

Residual stress is decreased by postweld heat treatment Rule of thumb: hold at temperature for 1 hour per inch of plate thickness; minimum hold of 30 minutes

Penetration:
Incomplete penetration occurs when the depth of the welded joint is insufficient Penetration can be improved by the following practices : Increasing the heat Input Reducing the travel speed during the welding Changing the joint design Ensuring the surfaces to be joined fit properly

Porosity
Caused by gases released during melting of the weld area but trapped during solidification, chemical reactions, Contaminants They are in form of spheres or elongated pockets Porosity can be reduced by Proper selection of electrodes Improved welding techniques Proper cleaning and prevention of contaminants Reduced welding speeds

Slag Inclusions
Compounds such as oxides ,fluxes, and electrode-coating materials that are trapped in the weld Zone Prevention can be done by following practices : Cleaning the weld bed surface before the next layer is deposited Providing enough shielding gas Redesigning the joint

Incomplete Fusion and Penetration

Produces lack of weld beads Practices for better weld : Raising the temperature of the base metal Cleaning the weld area, prior to the welding Changing the joint design and type of electrode

Providing enough shielding gas

Weld Profile
Under filling results when the joint is not filed with the proper amount of weld metal. Undercutting results from the melting away of the base metal and consequent generation of a groove in the shape of a sharp recess or notch. Overlap is a surface discontinuity usually caused by poor welding practice and by the selection of improper material.

Discontinuities in Fusion Welds

Fig : Schematic illustration of various discontinuities in fusion welds.

Cracks
Cracks occur in various directions and various locations Factors causing cracks: Temperature gradients that cause thermal stresses in the weld zone Variations in the composition of the weld zone. Embrittlement of grain boundaries

Inability if the weld metal to contract during cooling

Cracks

Fig : Types of cracks (in welded joints) caused by thermal stresses that develop during solidification and contraction of the weld bead and the surrounding structure. (a) Crater cracks (b) Various types of cracks in butt and T joints.

GMAW
An arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool to produce a fusion (melting) together of the base metal The process is used with a shielding gas supplied from an external source without pressure.

Welding Circuit
Wire Feeder Welding Gun

Wire Spool

Work Piece

Work Cable

Welder

Shielding Gas

GMAW welding Machine Setup

Regulator Wire Spool Wire Feeder Welding Gun

Shielding Gas

Work Clamp Welding Power Source

GMAW component diagram

How It Works

An arc is struck between a continuously fed filler wire and the work. The arc is protected from oxidation by a shielding gas over the weld pool.

Nomenclature of Area Between Nozzle and Work piece

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GMAW EQUIPMENTS

Contact Tip & Nozzle

Drive Rolls

GMAW EQUIPMENTS

Flow Meter

Wire Feeder Unit

MODES OF METAL TRANSFER

Metal transfer refers to how filler metal is deposited to the base metal to form the weld bead. The common modes of metal transfer are Short-circuit Globular Axial-spray Pulsed-spray transfers

MODES OF METAL TRANSFER

The mode of metal transfer is determined by many mitigating factors: Base Metal Type Filler Metal Composition Electrode Diameter Polarity Arc Current Arc Voltage/Arc Length Shielding Gas Composition Welding Position

GMAW Modes of Metal Transfer

Spray Globular

Short Circuiting

Pulsed Spray

GMAW Equipment
Power Supply
Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP)
(Electrons flow from to +)

Wire Feeder
Electrical mechanical device that feed required amount of filler material at a constant rate of speed

GMAW Equipment (Cont)

Welding filler electrode
Small diameter consumable electrode that is supplied to the welding gun by the roller drive system

Shielding Gas
Gas used to protect the molten metal from atmospheric contamination
75%Argon (inert gas) & 25% Carbon Dioxide most common gas used for GMAW

Inert Gases
Argon, helium, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide Form a protective envelope around the weld area Used in
MIG TIG Shield Metal Arc

GMAW Filler Metal Designations

ER - 70S - 6
Electrode Rod (can be used with GMAW)

Composition 6 = high silicon Solid Electrode Minimum ultimate tensile strength of the weld metal

Shielding Gas
Shielding gas can affect
Weld bead shape Arc heat, stability, and starting Surface tension Drop size Puddle flow Spatter

Ar

Ar-He

He

CO2

Travel and Work Gun Angles

Work Angle (W.A.)

Travel Angle (T.A.)

(Push) Travel Direction (Drag) Travel Direction

Axis of Weld

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Work and Gun Angles

22 - 144
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Relationship of Arc Length to Weld Bead Width

Electrode

Arc Length Arc Length

Low Voltage

High Voltage

22 - 145

Penetration Comparisons

Arc voltage too high for travel speed.

Proper arc voltage for speed

Arc voltage too slow for travel speed

22 - 146

Successful Arc Welding depends upon:

Correct metal identification
Metal properties vary

Correct electrode selection

Depends on metal type, thickness and position of weld

Correct amperage
Depends upon electrode type, size, position, and metal thickness Influence burn off rate and affect arc length and speed of travel

Successful Arc Welding depends upon:

Proper Arc length
Influences the amount of heat during the weld

Correct speed of travel

Determines the width of bead and indirectly the strength of the weld

Angle of electrode
Determines the bead shape and controls slag and gas inclusions

Safe Practices
Safety most important consideration to both worker and employer Welding no more dangerous than other industrial operations Safety precautions and protective equipment required for MIG/MAG process essentially same as for any other electric welding process

22 - 150

Clothing Regulations
Standard arc welding helmets with lenses ranging in shade from no. 6 for work using up to 30 amperes to no. 14 for work using more than 400 amperes should be worn
Arc should never be viewed with the naked eye when standing closer than 20 feet

Skin should be covered completely to prevent burns and other damage from ultraviolet light
Back of the head and neck should be protected from reflected radiation Gloves should always be worn
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Clothing Regulations
Shirts should be dark in color to reduce reflections
Have tight collar and long sleeves Leather, wool and aluminum-coated cloth can withstand action of radiant energy reasonably welld

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Handling of Gas Cylinders

Stored cylinders should be in protected area away from fire, cold, and grease and away from general shop activity Cylinders must be secured to equipment to prevent their being knocked over Proper regulators and flowmeters must be used with each special type of cylinder

22 - 156

Handling of Gas Cylinders

Cylinders should not be dropped, used as rollers, lifted with magnets, connected into electric circuit, or handled in any other way that might damage cylinder or regulator When cylinders empty, should be stored in upright position with valve closed

22 - 158

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