Motivation Process

Sunil Shukla

Motivation

The forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. The processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal - specifically, an organizational goal. Key Elements

Intensity: how hard a person tries Direction: toward beneficial goal Persistence: how long a person tries

A Basic Motivational Model

Early Theories of Motivation

These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory

McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory McClellands Theory of Needs

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

There

Self-Actualization

Higher Order Internal Lower Order External

Esteem Social Safety Physiological

is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Assumptions
Individuals

cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied
Must

move hierarchical order

in

McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).

Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees

Theory X Workers have little ambition Dislike work Avoid responsibility

Theory Y Workers are selfdirected Enjoy work Accept responsibility

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs

Extrinsic and Related to Dissatisfaction

Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction

McClellands Three Needs Theory

Need for Achievement (nAch)

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed

Need for Power (nPow)

The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

People have varying levels of each of the three needs.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Self-Determination Theory

Goal-Setting Theory

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Self-Efficacy Theory

Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory

Reinforcement Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory

Self-Determination Theory
People

prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation. Implications for Work Rewards

Major

Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent Extrinsic rewards may decrease intrinsic rewards Goal setting is more effective in improving motivation

Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards reduce it

Lockes Goal-Setting Theory

Basic Premise:

That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance

Difficult Goals:

Focus and direct attention

Energize the person to work harder

Difficulty increases persistence Force people to be more effective and efficient

Relationship between goals and performance depends on:

Goal commitment (the more public the better!) Task characteristics (simple, well-learned) Culture

Implementation of Goal-Setting: Management by Objectives

MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.

Goals must be:

Tangible Verifiable Measurable

Organization goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization. Four common ingredients to MBO programs:

Goal specificity
Participative decision making Explicit time period Performance feedback

Banduras Self-Efficacy Theory

An individuals belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

Higher efficacy is related to:

Greater confidence Greater persistence in the face of difficulties Better response to negative feedback (work harder)

Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.

Increased Confidence
Given Hard Goal Higher Self-Set Goal Higher Performance

Reinforcement Theory
(Komaki and Coombs)

Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.

Behavior is environmentally caused Thought (internal cogitative event) is not important

Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored

Behavior is controlled by its consequences reinforcers Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole cause

Adams Equity Theory

Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others.

When ratios are equal: state of equity exists there is no tension as the situation is considered fair When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness

Under-rewarded states cause anger Over-rewarded states cause guilt

Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity

Justice and Equity Theory

Procedural Justice Distributive Justice
Fairness of outcome Fairness of outcome process

Interactional Justice
Being treated with dignity and respect

Organizational Justice

Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.

The justice and equity theory is based on perceived equity in the workplace. For organizational justice to be perceived, there must be distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice.

Vrooms Expectancy Theory

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.

Expectancy of performance success

Instrumentality of success in getting reward

Valuation of the reward in employees eyes

 Expectancy Theory
Motivation is a function of Valance x Expectancy x Instrumentality
V = Strength of persons preference for receiving a reward E = Strength of belief that effort will result in completion of a task I = Belief that the reward will be received once the task is accomplished
Situn. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 V H+ H+ H+ H+ HHHE H H L L L H L I H L H L L L H M Strong Motivation Moderate Motivation Moderate Motivation Weak Motivation Moderate Avoidance Motivation Moderate Avoidance Motivation Moderate Avoidance Motivation

H-

Strong Avoidance Motivation

Is Motivation Everything?
Ability (A)

Motivation
(M)

Opportunity to Perform (O)

Performance (P)

P = f(A x M x O)

Motivation through Job Characteristics Model

Core Dimensions of Job Characteristics Model

Skill Variety: degree to which the job incorporates a number of different skills and talents
Task Identity: degree to which the job requires the completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work Task Significance: how the job impacts the lives of others Autonomy: identifies how much freedom and independence the worker has over the job Feedback: how much the job generates direct and clear information about the workers performance

How Can Jobs be Redesigned?

Two

common practices:

Job rotation
Job enrichment.

In

job rotation an organization will shift the employee to different tasks with similar skill requirements but all in the same organizational level. job enrichment a owner/manager will expand an employees job by increasing the level of control the worker has in planning their job, executing it or evaluating the work.

In

Employee Involvement

Employee involvement is defined as a participative process that uses employees input to increase their commitment to the overall success of the organization. Programs that help with employee involvement are

Participative management

Representative participation.

Participative management is when managers include employees in the decision-making process. Representative participation tries to redistribute power by putting labor on a more equal footing with the interest of managers and stockholders.