Introduction to the Wireless Communication Systems

Text Sources
Theodore Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice, Prentice-Hall, 1996 Andreas F Molisch, Wireless Communications, WileyIndia,2009 Mobile Communications , Jochen Schiller, Pearson Education,2008 Gallagher & Snyder, Mobile Telecommunications Networking with IS-41, McGraw-Hill

9/18/2012

Early history of wireless communication

Many people in history used light for communication heliographs, flags (semaphore), ... 150 BC smoke signals for communication; (Polybius, Greece) 1794, optical telegraph, Claude Chappe Here electromagnetic waves are of special importance: 1831 Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic induction J. Maxwell (1831-79): theory of electromagnetic Fields, wave equations (1864) H. Hertz (1857-94): demonstrates with an experiment the wave character of electrical transmission through space (1886, in Karlsruhe, Germany, at the 1.10.1 location of todays University of Karlsruhe)

 1895 Guglielmo Marconi first demonstration of wireless telegraphy (digital!) long wave transmission, high transmission power necessary (> 200kw) 1907 Commercial transatlantic connections huge base stations (30 100m high antennas) 1915 Wireless voice transmission New York - San Francisco 1920 Discovery of short waves by Marconi reflection at the ionosphere smaller sender and receiver, possible due to the invention of the vacuum tube (1906, Lee DeForest and Robert von Lieben) 1926 Train-phone on the line Hamburg - Berlin wires parallel to the railroad track

9/18/2012

 1928 many TV broadcast trials (across Atlantic, color TV, TV news) 1933 Frequency modulation (E. H. Armstrong) 1958 A-Netz in Germany analog, 160MHz, connection setup only from the mobile station, no handover, 80% coverage, 1971 11000 customers 1972 B-Netz in Germany analog, 160MHz, connection setup from the fixed network too (but location of the mobile station has to be known) available also in A, NL and LUX, 1979 13000 customer in D 1979 NMT at 450MHz (Scandinavian countries) 1982 Start of GSM-specification goal: pan-European digital mobile phone system with roaming 1983 Start of the American AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System, analog) 1984 CT-1 standard (Europe) for cordless telephones

9/18/2012

 1986 C-Netz in Germany analog voice transmission, 450MHz, hand-over possible, digital signaling, automatic location of mobile device still in use today (as T-C-Tel), services: FAX, modem, X.25, e-mail, 98% coverage 1991 Specification of DECT Digital European Cordless Telephone (today: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications) 1880-1900MHz, ~100-500m range, 120 duplex channels, 1.2Mbit/s data transmission, voice encryption, authentication, up to several 10000 user/km2, used in more than 40 countries 1992 Start of GSM in D as D1 and D2, fully digital, 900MHz, 124 channels automatic location, hand-over, cellular roaming in Europe - now worldwide in more than 100 countries services: data with 9.6kbit/s, FAX, voice, ...

9/18/2012

 1994 E-Netz in Germany GSM with 1800MHz, smaller cells, supported by 11 countries as Eplus in D (1997 98% coverage of the population) 1996 HiperLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network) ETSI, standardization of type 1: 5.15 - 5.30GHz, 23.5Mbit/s recommendations for type 2 and 3 (both 5GHz) and 4 (17GHz) as wireless ATM-networks (up to 155Mbit/s) 1997 Wireless LAN - IEEE802.11 IEEE-Standard, 2.4 - 2.5GHz and infrared, 2Mbit/s already many products (with proprietary extensions) 1998 Specification of GSM successors for UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) as European proposals for IMT-2000 Iridium 66 satellites (+6 spare), 1.6GHz to the mobile phone

9/18/2012

Wireless systems: Overview of the development

cellular phones
1981: NMT 450

satellites

cordless phones
1980: CT0

wireless LAN

1986: NMT 900

1983: AMPS

1982: Inmarsat-A

1984: CT1 1987: CT1+ 1989: CT 2 1991: DECT 1995/96/97: IEEE 802.11, HIPERLAN

1988: Inmarsat-C 1991: D-AMPS

1991: CDMA

199x: proprietary

1992: GSM
1993: PDC 1994: DCS 1800

1992: Inmarsat-B Inmarsat-M

1998: Iridium 2005?: UMTS/IMT-2000

analog
digital

2005?: MBS, WATM

1.15.1

The Electronics boom

Figure 1.1 The growth of mobile telephony as compared with other popular inventions of the 20th century.

 In 1934 , 194 Municipal Police Radio Systems and 58 State Police Stations had adopted AM I935 Edwin Armstrong Demonstrated FM 1946 First mobile phones deployed, FM 120KHz, half-duplex 1950 FCC doubled the number of channels per market with now new spectrum and reducing the channel bandwidth to 60KHz, better RF filters available Mid 1960s: 30KHz, full-duplex, IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone Service), limited capacity: 12 channels, 543 paying customers in New York City (1976)

9/18/2012

10

Cellular Communications
1968 Cell concept proposed by AT&T 1983 FCC allocated 666 duplex channels 40 MHz of spectrum in 800 MHz band, 30 kHz for each one-way channel (for full-duplex) analog Channels split between two carriers More frequencies allocated, 1.8-1.9 GHz, etc. over time Bandwidth limited
9/18/2012 11

Forward/Reverse Channels

849-851 Air Mobile, air cellular 851-869 Private land mobile, public safety frequencies, trunk lines
9/18/2012 12

Terminology
Base Station Fixed station used for radio communication with mobiles. Located at the center or edge of coverage region. Consists of radio channels, transmit/receive antennas. Control Channels Radio channels used for transmission of call setup, request, initiation and other control purposes Full Duplex Communication system that allows simultaneous twoway communication, transmission reception usually on two different frequencies (FDD)/(TDD)

9/18/2012

16

 Half Duplex Systems Communication system that allows simultaneous twoway communication by using the same channel for both transmission and reception Mobile Stations A Station in the cellular Radio Service intended for use while in motion at unspecified locations Page Brief message broadcast over the entire service area, usually in a simulcast fashion by many base stations at the same time

 Forward Channel
Radio channel for transmission from base station to mobile

Reverse channel
Radio channel for transmission from mobile to base station

Handoff
Process of transferring a mobile from one channel or base station to another

Mobile Switching Center

Switching center that coordinates call routing in a large service area. MSC connects cellular base stations and the mobiles to the PSTN (also called Mobile Telephone switching office (MTSO)
9/18/2012 18

Paging System

Cordless Telephone System

Cellular System

Cellular Telephone Call

Figure 1.6 Timing diagram illustrating how a call to a mobile user initiated by a landline subscriber is established.

Figure 1.7 Timing diagram illustrating how a call initiated by a mobile is established.

Comparison

Wireless System Basics

Reverse Link

Forward Link
Control or Setup Channels Base Station
9/18/2012

Mobile Unit
26

Cellular System

9/18/2012

27

Making calls from a cellphone

1. Mobile sends call initiation request, its ID number to base station on reverse control channel 2. Base station receives and relays to the MSC 3. MSC validates user, instructs base station to move mobile to voice channels 4. Base station pages mobile with instructions 5. Mobile moves to voice channel 6. MSC connects mobile to PSTN 7. Voice transmission/reception between mobile and base station begins
9/18/2012 28

Making calls to a cellphone

1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

MSC receives call from PSTN , sends page to base stations Base stations send page on forward control channel to mobiles Mobile receives page and acknowledges on reverse control channel; sends validation information MSC validates mobile, asks base station to put user on voice channel pair Base station sends voice channel information on FCC, mobile moves to voice channel Voice transmission/reception initiated; MSC connects with PSTN.

9/18/2012

29

Fail of Iridium Satellite System

The system was originally to have 77 active satellites, and as such was named for the element iridium, which has atomic number 77.

Too few users per square miles, cost too much. Chapter 11 bankruptcy on August 13, 1999 In 70s, 12 calls per NYC.

Cellular Concept
The limited capacity of the first mobile radio-telephone services was related to the spectrum usednot much sharing and a lot of bandwidth dedicated to a single call. good coverage interference: impossible to reuse the same frequency The cellular concept addressed many of the shortcomings of the first mobile telephones Frequency reuse Wasted spectrum allocated to a single user In 1968, Bell Labs proposed the cellular telephony concept to the FCC It was approved and then the work began! FCC allocated spectrum (took away TV UHF channels 70-83) in the 825-845 MHz and 870-890 MHz bands AT&T put up a developmental system in Chicago

Cellular Network Architecture

Mobile Switching Center

Public Telephone network and Internet

Mobile Switching Center

Wired Network

Cellular Concept
developed by Bell Labs 1960s-70s areas divided into cells a system approach, no major technological changes a few hundred meters in some cities, 10s km at country side each served by base station with lower power transmitter each gets portion of total number of channels neighboring cells assigned different groups of channels, interference minimized hexagon geometry cell shape

Frequency reuse concept

Frequency Reuse
Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells
10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell transmission power controlled to limit power at that frequency escaping to adjacent cells the issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between two cells using the same frequency

Frequency Reuse
each cell allocated a group k channels a cluster has N cells with unique and disjoint channel groups, N typically 4, 7, 12 total number of duplex channels S = kN Cluster repeated M times in a system Total number of channels that can be used (capacity) C = MkN = MS Smaller cells higher M higher C + Channel reuse higher capacity + Lower power requirements for mobiles Additional base stations required More frequent handoffs Greater chance of hot spots

Effect of cluster size N

channels unique in same cluster, repeated over clusters keep cell size same
large N : weaker interference, but lower capacity small N: higher capacity, more interference need to maintain certain S/I level

frequency reuse factor: 1/N

each cell within a cluster assigned 1/N of the total available channels

In most of the current networks, frequency reuse factor is 1.

Design of cluster size

In order to connect without gaps between adjacent cells (to Tessellate) N = i2 + ij + j2 where i and j are non-negative integers Example i = 2, j = 1 N = 22 + 2(1) + 12 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7 Next page example move i cells along any chain or hexagon. then turn 60 degrees counterclockwise and move j cells. Example 3.1 in page 61

Example
N=19 (i=3, j=2)

Channel Assignment Strategies

Fixed Channel Assignments Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels. If all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is blocked, and the subscriber does not receive service. Variation includes a borrowing strategy: a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighboring cell if all its own channels are occupied. This is supervised by the Mobile Switch Center: Connects cells to wide area network; Manages call setup; Handles mobility

Channel Assignment Strategies

Dynamic Channel Assignments
Voice channels are not allocated to different cells permanently. Each time a call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel from the MSC. The switch then allocates a channel to the requested call based on a decision algorithm taking into account different factors: frequency re-use of candidate channel and cost factors. Dynamic channel assignment is more complex (real time), but reduces likelihood of blocking

Handover/handoff
Reasons for handover
Moving out of range Load balancing

Cell, BSC (base station controller), MSC (mobile switching center) Handover scenarios
Intra-cell handover (e.g., change frequency due to narrowband interference) Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover (e.g., movement across cells) Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover (e.g., movement across BSC) Inter MSC handover (e.g., movement across MSC)

Four Types of Handoff

1 MS 2 MS 3 MS 4 MS

BTS

BTS
BSC

BTS
BSC

BTS
BSC

MSC

MSC

Handoffs
important task in any cellular radio system must be performed successfully, infrequently, and imperceptible to users. identify a new base station channel allocation in new base station high priority than initiation request (block new calls rather than drop existing calls)

Handoff
=handoff threshold Minimum acceptable signal to maintain the call too small: Insufficient time to complete handoff before call is lost More call losses too large: Too many handoffs Burden for MSC

Styles of Handoff
Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO) in first generation cellular system, each base station constantly monitors signal strength from mobiles in its cell based on the measures, MSC decides if handoff necessary mobile plays passive role in process burden on MSC Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO) present in second generation systems mobile measures received power from surrounding base stations and report to serving base station handoff initiated when power received from a neighboring cell exceeds current value by a certain level or for a certain period of time faster since measurements made by mobiles, MSC dont need monitor signal strength Mobile Controlled Handoff

Types of Handoff
Hard handoff (break before make) FDMA, TDMA mobile has radio link with only one BS at anytime old BS connection is terminated before new BS connection is made.

Types of Handoff
Soft handoff (make before break)
CDMA systems mobile has simultaneous radio link with more than one BS at any time new BS connection is made before old BS connection is broken mobile unit remains in this state until one base station clearly predominates

Types of Handoff
Vertical handoff

Prioritizing handoff
Dropping a call is more annoying than line busy Guard channel concept Reserve some channels for handoffs Waste of bandwidth But can be dynamically predicted Queuing of handoff requests There is a gap between time for handoff and time to drop. Better tradeoff between dropping call probability and network traffic. Reduce the burden for handoff Cell dragging Umbrella cell

Umbrella Cell

EE 542/452 Spring 2007

Interference and System Capacity

major limiting factor in performance of cellular radio systems sources of interference: other mobiles in same cell a call in progress in a neighboring cell other base stations operating in the same frequency band Non-cellular system leaking energy into the cellular frequency band effect of interference: voice channel: cross talk control channel: missed or blocked calls two main types: co-channel interference adjacent channel interference

Cell Frequency Reuse

9/18/2012

53

Locating Cells

N=19 (i= 3, j=2)

9/18/2012

54

Channel Assignment
Need to assign frequencies to users/cell Fixed
Each cell has predetermined number of channels If all channels used, cell is blocked, no service Cells can borrow channels from neighboring cells

Dynamic
No permanent allocation Frequency band requested from MSC, assigned using reuse distance, blocking probabilities, use of channel, signal strength

9/18/2012

55

Handoff Scenarios

9/18/2012

56

Umbrella Cells

9/18/2012

57

Interference and Capacity

Interference causes
cross-talk, poor quality,(voice channel) blocking and missed calls (control channel)

Co-channel interference
Frequency reuse in nearby cells

Adjacent channel interference

Signal in adjacent frequency band Signals from other cell companies

9/18/2012

58

Co-Channel Interference

9/18/2012

59

Adjacent Channel Interference

Comes from imperfect filters that allow frequency leakage into the band Serious problem if interferer is nearby, nearfar effect
Nearby mobile transmits on a frequency near to that of a weak mobile

Base station receivers need high-Q filters to reject adjacent channel interference.

9/18/2012

60

Power Control
Each mobile should use the minimum amount of power to have good quality. Base station controls power
CDMA power toggles up and down continuously, like delta modulation TDMA, AMPS adjusted by base station

9/18/2012

61

Increasing Capacity
Cell Sectoring
Divide cell up into angular sections, typically 3 or 6 Increases reuse

Cell Splitting
Subdivide cell into smaller cells, increases the number of channels, keep same structure Needs power control

9/18/2012

62

Cell Sectoring

9/18/2012

63

Cell Splitting

9/18/2012

64

AMPS Specs

9/18/2012

65

AMPS Voice Processing

Compander compresses signal in amplitude, roughly 2:1 ratio Deviation Limiter assures that the max. deviation is the +/- 12 kHz

Postdeviation limiter filter LPF, attenuated signal to keep in band and avoid interfering with SAT tones

9/18/2012

66

Other Cell Specs

IS-54 Digital cellular in US, DQPSK IS136 PCS IS 95 A CDMA spread spectrum Global system for mobiles (GSM)
TDMA with channelization

9/18/2012

67

Cellular Concept

9/18/2012

68

Digital Communications
Early 1990s digital systems begin with the goal of increasing the number of users, DAMPS TDMA FDMA CDMA

9/18/2012

69

F r e q u e n c y

FDMA-Frequency Division Multiple Access

Time -Requires no synchronization or central timing, channels independent.

9/18/2012 70

TDMA-Time Division Multiple Access: Fixed Slots

F r e q u e n c y Time

9/18/2012

71

CDMA-Code Division Multiple Access: Frequency Hopping

F r e q u e n c y Time

9/18/2012

72

9/18/2012

73