Morphological Processes

Compiled by:

Bening Anggadita Didit Kurniadi Luqman Hakim Andi Rizki Khairi

Introduction
"The term 'morphology' has been taken over from biology where it is used to denote the study of the forms of plants and animals. . . . It was first used for linguistic purposes in 1859 by the German linguist August Schleicher (Salmon 2000), to refer to the study of the form of words. In present-day linguistics, the term 'morphology' refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and of the systematic form-meaning correspondences between words. . . . "The notion 'systematic' in the definition of morphology given above is important. For instance, we might observe a form difference and a corresponding meaning difference between the English noun ear and the verb hear. However, this pattern is not systematic: there are no similar word pairs, and we cannot form new English verbs by adding h- to a noun."

Word classes
We began by grouping words more or less on the basis of our instincts about English. We somehow "feel" that brother and car belong to the same class, and that brother and drives belong to different classes. However, in order to conduct an informed study of grammar, we need a much more reliable and more systematic method than this for distinguishing between word classes. We use a combination of three criteria for determining the word class of a word:

1. The meaning of the word 2. The form or `shape' of the word 3. The position or `environment' of the word in a sentence

Lexical word
The branch of linguisics that studies the stock of words (the lexicon) in a given language. Some word classes are open, that is, new words can be added to the class as the need arises. The class of nouns, for instance, is potentially infinite, since it is continually being expanded as new scientific discoveries are made, new products are developed, and new ideas are explored Lexicology and Syntax The open classes in English are nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs

Function word
A word that expresses a grammatical relationship. Also known as a grammatical word. Function words include determiners, conjunctions, and prepositions. Contrast with content word. Function words are like thumbtacks. We don't notice thumbtacks; we look at the calendar or the poster they are holding up. If we were to take the tacks away, the calendar and the poster would fall down. Likewise, if we took the function words out of speech, it would be hard to figure out what was going on

Inflection
Inflection is word formation process that changes the morphological form of a word to fit a syntactic context. Example: - walk vs. walked - cat vs. cats

There are some characteristics of inflection: inflection does not change the grammatical category of the base; inflection does not affect the meaning of the word; inflectional processes take place after derivational ones; Example - neighborhoods vs. *neighborshood inflectional affixes have few exceptions (they are almost fully productive), while derivational affixes usually attach to a limited class of words;

 English inflectional affixes are all suffixes. Example - plural -s: cat - cats - possessive/genitive s: Johns - 3rd person sg. non-past -s: sing-sings - progressive -ing: sing-singing - past tense -ed: talk-talked - past participle -en/-ed: eat-eaten/study-studied - comparative -er: happy-happier - superlative -est: happy-happiest

DERIVATION

 Derivational affixes are affixes which change the meaning of the base in some important ways, or change it into a different word class. They turn nouns into adjectives, adjectives into verbs, nouns of one type into nouns to the other type, and so on. They add new meanings to the base. They are readily followed by inflectional suffixes, and in many cases more than one derivational suffix can be found in the some word.

For instance, let us start with the verb Establish in its rather specialized meaning of grant special state privileges to a church. We can derive the verb disestablish, meaning take away special privileges. Then we can form the noun disestablishment meaning the act of taking away privileges, then the noun disestablishmentarian meaning one who advocates disestablishment, then the noun disestablishmentarianism meaning the doctrine of disestablishment, and finally antidisestablishmentarianism, meaning opposite to the disestablishing the church. The latter word is often cited as the longest word in English Language Brockman (1971: 8)

Some derivational affixes of English

AFFIX Prefix 'non-' Suffix '-ity' Prefix 'un-' Suffix '-ous' Prefix 're-'
Class(es) of word to Nature of change which affix in meaning applies
Examples Noun: non-starter Adj.: non-partisan

Noun, adjective Adjective Verb Adjective Noun Verb

Negation/opposite Changes to noun

electric/electricity obese/obesity

tie/untie, Reverses action fasten/unfasten opposite quality clear/unclear, safe/unsafe Changes to adjective Repeat action Changes to adjective; means 'can undergo action of verb' fame/famous, glamor/glamorous tie/retie, write/rewrite print/printable, drink/drinkable

Suffix '-able'

Verb

Inflectional categories and affixes of English

Word class to which inflection applies

Inflectional category Number Possessive 3rd person singular present past tense perfect aspect
progressive or continunous aspect comparative (comparing two items) superlative (comparing +2 items)

Regular affix used to express category -s, -es: book/books, bush/bushes

Nouns . Verbs . . .

-'s, -': the cat's tail,Charles' toe

-s, -es: it rains, Karen writes,the water sloshes -ed: paint/painted

-ed: paint/painted ('has painted) (past participle) -ing: fall/falling, write/writing (present participle) -er: tall/taller
-est: tall/tallest

Adjectives
.

Derivational Suffixes
Abstract noun makers
-age = frontage -dom = kingdom -ery = slavery -ful = spoonful -hood = brotherhood -ing = farming

Concrete noun makers

-eer = engineer -er = teenager -ess = waitress -let = booklet -ling = duckling -ster = gangster

Nouns from verbs

-age = wastage -al = refusal -ant = informant -ation = education -ee = commitee -er = writer

Nouns from adjectives

-ity = falsity -ness = kindness Adjectivenoun makers -ese = Chinese -an = republican -ist= socialist

-ism = idealism
-ocracy = aristocracy -ship = friendship

-ing = clothing
-ment = equipment -or = actor

-ite = Luddite

Adverb-makers -ly=quickly

Verb makers -ate= orchestrate

Adjectives from nouns -ed= pointed

Adjectives from verbs -able= drinkable

-ward(s)= onwards
-wise= clockwise

-en= ripen
-ify= certify -ize/ise= advertise

-esque= burlesque
-ful= successful -(i)al= accidental

-ive= attractive

-ic= atomic
-ish= foolish -less= careless -ly= friendly -ous= ambitious -y= hairy

Noun Suffixes
ROOT
EMPLOY AGREE
DISCUSS PRODUCE PERMIT INVITE OPPOSE PREFER DISTANT CERTAIN SECURE SAD ILL BUILD UNDERSTAND

SUFFIX
-ment
-ion, tion, sion

WORD
EMPLOY-MENT AGREE- MENT
DISCUSS-ION PRODUC-TION PERMI-S-SION INVIT ATION OPPOS ITION PREFER- ENCE DISTAN- CE CERTAIN-TY SECUR- ITY SAD-NESS ILL-NESS BUILD-ING UNDERSTAND-ING

- ation, - ition -ence, - ance - ty, - ity -ness - ing

Nouns for People

SUFFIX
- er, -or, - ress Drive Edit Wait

ROOT

WORD
DRIV-ER EDIT-OR WAIT-RESS TOUR-IST SCIENT-IST ASSIST-ANT STUD-ENT REPUBLIC-AN ELECTRIC-IAN EMPLOY-EE EXAMIN-EE ADDRESS-EE

-ist - ant , - ent -an, - ian - ee

Tour Science Assist Study Republic Electric Employ Examine Address

Forming Adjectives -y added to the names of common substances, objects and things that are experienced Added to time words and to certain family/personal words Added when it indicates in a positive way the presence of a quality or ability Rock = ROCKY (full of rocks, like rocks) Noise = NOISY ( producing noise) Day = DAILY Week= WEEKLY Man = MANLY Use = USEFUL Skill = SKILFUL

-ly

-ful

-less

Negatively suggests the Use = USELESS absence of a quality or Meaning = MEANINGLESS ability Added to certain nouns of Latin origin ending in ion, -ic(s) and -ure Addition = ADDITIONAL Music = MUSICAL Ethics = ETHICAL Nature = NATURAL

- al

TO SUM UP Words can often be divided into morphemes. Words can have prefixes, infixes, suffixes, show inflectional or derivational morphology, and much more... 'Morphology is the study of the rules governing the formation of words.'

Other Types of Word Formation

Compounding A compound word contains at least two bases which are both words ,or at any rate , root morphemes. examples n+n))(Tea) +( pot ) => teapot Hair) + (dress) + er => hairdresser(n+v) Blue) + (bird) => bluebird (a+n) Over) + (lord) => overlord (pre+n) -)

Conversion
Conversion is a process that assigns an already existing word to a new syntactic category. =>V derived from n e.g button (the shirt) =>N derived from v (a long) walk =>V derived from A Open (a door)

clipping
Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.It is especially popular among students. e.g Prof => for professor Poli sci => for political science Zoo for => zoological garden

blends
Blends are words that created from nonmorhpemic parts of two already existing items A blend is usually formed from the first part of one word and the the final part of the second one. e.g brunch =>from breakfast and lunch Smog => from smoke and fog. Spam => from spiced and ham.

Internal change
Internal change is a process that substitutes' one non-morphemic segment for another . E.g sing(present) =>sang(past) Sink(present) =>sank(past) Foot (singular) => feet(plural) Goose(singular) => geese(plural)

suppletion
Suppletion is a morphological process whereby a root morpheme is replaced by a phonologically unrelated form in order to indicate a grammatical contrast. have => had Go => went good=> better

Coinage
The invention of totally new terms. Often a brand name becomes the name for the item or process associated with the brand name Examples:
hoover Kleenex Xerox Kodak

Borrowing
Taking over words from other languages. Examples from Italian
pasta piano

 A word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to a word of a different type (usually a verb) through widespread use.
to donate from donation to opt from option Other examples: pronunciate (< pronunciation), resurrect (< resurrection), enthuse (< enthusiasm),

Back formation

Hypocorism: from a longer word we form a single syllable word and add y or ie. (e.g. television=telly,

vegetable= veggie, moving picture=movie)

Acronyms
They are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. They are usually pronounced as single words

(e.g. NATO, PIN, etc.) Or as a set of letters (e.g. CD, VIP, etc.)

Thank You