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Introduction
An artificial or man-made island is an island or archipelago(group of islands) that has been constructed by people rather than formed by natural means. Methods of Creation 1)Expanding existing islets 2)Construction on existing reefs 3)Amalgamating several natural islets into a bigger island. 4)Construction on sea bed. 5)Land Reclamation 6)Oil Platforms
The following are the major reasons to justify the creation of Artificial Islands: - urban development (special structures) - industry - waste handling - infrastructure (ports and airports) - extended runways - recreation - mining of natural resources - oil drills and exploration platforms. - tidal or wind energy generation. - recreational structures like hotels or water parks.
Previous Usage
1) Artificial islands have been used since the seventeenth century
Political Status
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea treaty (UNCLOS), artificial islands are not considered harbour works and are under the jurisdiction of the nearest coastal state if within 200 nautical miles (370 km) .Artificial islands are not considered islands for purposes of having their own territorial waters or exclusive economic zones, and only the coastal state may authorize their construction. However, on the high seas beyond national jurisdiction, any "state" may construct artificial islands .
Design Considerations
water depth wave height range climate ice conditions; tidal range; currents; foundation conditions; earthquake risk; source of materials; shipping lanes; existing pipelines and cables; legal aspects; environmental considerations; and, fisheries considerations.
Variable Loads: a)Weight of equipments , materials and stores which may be removed after the phase considered. b)Variations in internal and external pressure from water,oil,gas,etc. caused by normal operating of the structure c) Loads due to fendering and mooring of vessels, helicopter landing, cranes or drilling operations. Environmental Loads : a)Wind b)Weather loads due to heating and cooling c) Sea loads like wave loads, tidal loads, currents
1. Temporary tube piles driven into sea bed 2. Temporary sheet piles and tie rods driven into sea bed to support boundary rocks (see figure 1) 3. Permanent boundary rock bunds deposited on either side of sheet piles 4. Hydraulic fill layers deposited between bunds to displace sea water and form island 5. Permanent concrete armour units placed around island to protect it from the waves 6. Piles driven through island and sea bed below to stabilize structure 7. Island interior excavated and temporary sheet pile coffer dam inserted 8. Thick concrete plug slab laid at base of island 9. Reinforced concrete retaining wall built
CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
PRECAST PILES CAST IN YARDS, LOADED ONTO BARGES AND PLACED AT SITE.
PILES DRIVEN, SOIL COMPACTED, SURROUNDING BUND CREATED, ARMOUR ROCKS PLACED , PLATFORM SLAB CASTED CONSTRUCTION STARTS.
FUNCTIONS OF SAND
THE FUNCTIONS OF SAND IN THE STRUCTURE
ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1) Formation of a protection or isolation layer 2) Providing of ballast weight 3) Providing vertical support or load distribution 4) Providing of horizontal soil pressure 5) Providing of drainage capacity 6) Filling Voids
Process Parameters
Sand Characteristics : - Mineral Composition - Grain Size Composition - Fall Velocity Composition Flow rate and concentration in the discharge pipe : - Mixture flow rate - Concentration of mixture density - Sand Production rate
Geometry of the fill area above water level : - Determined by the following : - minimum dimensions of the sand body and working space on the crest - length along the guide bunds
Density of Sand
-The in-situ density of porosity of the sand fill can be measured using the following techniques : -Electric Density measurement -Nuclear Density measurement -Density of frozen samples -Dutch cone penetration tests -The following characteristics are relevant : -Minimum and maximum density -Dry Critical density - Wet Critical density - Critical and steady state density
4.
5.
6.
7. 8.
Sand winning Sand transport Formation of sand water jet Formation of a crater Flowing of sand water mixture on slope above water Flowing of sand water mixture on submerged slope Loss of sand under water Sedimentation and formation of
The
source of construction materials critical items in the choice of island sites. Ideally, a good quality coarse grained sand must be located within 5 to 10 km of the island site.
The
barges are towed to the island site and the sand dumped directly from the trailer. When the water depth becomes too shallow, the sand is dumped at a borrow pit and pumped by a stationary dredge to the specified site. The sand is protected by rock revetments and a layer of armour rock. The top layer of sand can be sprayed with a bitumen emulsion and a layer of soil. Then a suitable grass is planted to reduce erosion.
Soil Investigations
Soil from the borrow pit needs to be investigated for the following: 1) Suitability of the sand as a building material 2) Winning method and the expected production level 3) Determination of the risk of loss of stability of adjacent structures as a result of the sand removal.
Investigation Methods
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Taking of surface samples Borings and Laboratory Tests Soil penetration tests Cone penetration tests Pressiometer or dilatometer Density Investigations Twin well probe Seismic Investigation The methods of investigation are used to determine the type of deposits, thickness and extent of layers, local variations in soil, level of erosion etc.
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ELECTRONIC SATELLITE NAVIGATION, SPAR BUOYS, ACOUSTIC TRANSPONDERS, SURVEY, INVESTIGATION AND CORING AND SAMPLING, GRAB SAMPLES, SPARKER SURVEY, SIDE-SCAN SONAR, ACOUSTIC IMAGING, FOUNDATION PENETROMETERS, VIDEO, SUBMERSIBLE CONTROLS AND DIVER INSPECTION
DERRIK BARGE, DRILL SHIP, SEMISUBMERSIBLE JACK-UP, GUYED TOWER, HEAVE COMPENSATORS DRAG-OFF WITH TRAWLERS, SHAPED CHARGES, ROV'S WITH MANIPULATORS, UNDERWATER BURNING, THERMIC LANCERS TRAILER SUCTION HOPPER DREDGE, CUTTERHEAD HYDRAULIC DREDGE, GRAB DREDGE OR CLAMSHELL, CONTINOUS BUCKET LADDER DREDGE, SLACK LINE BUCKET DREDGE, PLOW, JETTING, PIPELINE BURIAL SLED, DEEP-SEA MINING DRAG EXCAVATOR, AIRLIFT, EDUCTORS, REMOTE-CONTROLLED SEAFLOOR DREDGE
HYDRAULIC BACKHOES, DIPPER DREDGES, POWER ACTIVATED CLAMSHELL DREDGING, REMOVAL OF BUCKETS, PLOWS, SHAPED CHARGES, BLASTING IN DRILLED HOLES, CHISELS, HARD SEDIMENTS AND ROCKS HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC ROCK BREAKERS, DRIVEN SPUDS, CUTTERHEAD DREDGES, HIGH PRESSURE JETS 5 DIKES OF ROCKS OR CLAY BUNDS TO CONTAIN SAND, CONTROLLED PLACEMENT OF UNDERWATER UNDERWATER DEPOSITION, DUMP ENMASSE FROM HOPPER BARGES, TREMIE, FILLS BUCKET, SKIP, CHUTE OR LADDER
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DEEP VIBRATION, SURFACE VIBRATION, DYNAMIC COMPACTION WITH DROPPED WEIGHTS, EXPLOSIVES OR AIRGUN, DEPOSITION IN MASS, PRESATURATION, SELECTION OF OPTIMUM GRADING
SAND PILES, VIBRATION, FREEZING, PRESURCHARGING, SURCHARGING WITH MEMBRANE AND DRAINAGE, SURCHARGING CONSOLIDATION AND WITH STRUCTURE AND BALLAST, WICK AND SAND DRAINS, DRAINAGE WELLS, PERIPHERAL SURCHARGING, CEMENT STRENGTHENING OF WEAK SOILS INJECTION, CHEMICAL GROUTING, LIME INJECTION, DEEP CEMENT MIXING, ELECTRO-OSMOSIS DENSIFICATION, DRAINAGE WELLS, PERIPHERAL APRON OF GRADED ROCK HYDRAULIC DUSTPAN DREDGE WITH HEAVE COMPENSATOR SUSPENSION OF DREDGE HEAD, DRAGS, BOTTOM-SUPPORTED SCREED FRAME, SCREED FRAME FROM TLP OR HEAVE COMPENSATED PLATFORM, HORIZONTAL SCREW AUGUR UNDERBASE GROUTING, UNDERBASE SAND INJECTION OR SAND FLOW, TREMIE CONCRETE, GROUT INTRUDED AGGREGATE, MUD JACKING ARTICULATED DREDGE ARMS, AIRLIFT, JETS, EDUCTORS, DRILLS SACRIFICIAL FILL, ROCK, FILTER ROCK, FILTER FABRIC, ARTICULATED MATTRESSES, SANDBAGS, GROUT FILLED POROUS BAGS, SKIRTS ON STRUCTURES, APRONS AND FLOW CONTROLLED DEVICES AT BASE OF STRUCTURES, ARTIFICIAL SEAWEED, SAND ASPHALT AND ROCK ASPHALT BLANKETS, UNDERWATER CONCRETE SLABS BENTONITE-CEMENT SLURRIES, DISCHARGE OF FINE SAND BLANKET
9 PREVENTION OF LIQUEFACTION
LEVELING OF SEAFLOOR OR EMBANKMENT
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PROVISION OF UNIFORM SUPPORT UNDER BASE OF STRUCTURE EXCAVATION BENEATH STRUCTURE SCOUR AND EROSION PROTECTION
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TURBIDITY SUPPRESSION
DREDGING
Dredging Basics
Dredging is the maritime transportation of natural materials from one part of the water environment to
storage
of contaminated materials Annual Turnover of the dredging industry: 6.3 Billion $ (2008)
S U C T I O N D R E D G E
C U T T E R S U C T I O N D R E D G E
T R A I L I N G
S U C T I O N
D R E D G E
E D U C T O R D R E D G E
Environmental Considerations
Environmental conditions consist of two major aspects: - Weather climate -Wave climate Temperatures of air and water as well as humidity define the weather climate. The chance of violent storms blowing up is a major aspect to be considered. Wave climate is characterized by wave height, period and its distribution (spectrum). Statistics in respect of wave appearance in time is useful. Both climates affect workability. Workability is part of the dredgers overall capacity. Violent storms can lead to autonomy requirements when means of escape are required.
Local Facilities
A wide range of local facilities can be stated. If only few facilities are expected to be available then a high rate of autonomy of the dredger is required. Examples of local facilities are: - Repair area ashore - Workboats or other supporting vessels - Supply of spares - Supply of bunkers, drinking water and consumables - Availability of shore pipelines and/or barges - Availability of shelter area -Water depth for spud tilting and ladder tilting
other
Geometrical Properties
Geometrical properties are related to the dredging work itself. - Water depth at start - Water depth to be realized -Canal width, slope.
Soil Properties
Soil properties of the material to be dredged strongly influence the production of the dredger. Examples are: - Density - Hardness, strength - Grain size distribution Soil properties can also influence the workability of the dredger. Hard soil means small allowance of wave induced ships movements.
Dredge pump capacity -required flow rate and head -discharge pipeline length(differ for pumping ashore and
barge loading)
-density of the mixture -soil characteristics
Swing length and speed A great distance between cutter and work spud enables a cutter dredger to execute a wide cut per swing. This results in a high dredging efficiency. On the other hand it increases the minimum workable canal width, making small works difficult. The rudders and propellers of a self-propelled CSD constitute an obstacle and require protection or retractable propellers may be provided. Retraction challenging because available space in the ladder pontoons is very limited and loss of displacement (moon pools) in the same area is not favourable. Appendages above the waterline are anchor boom pivots or the dredgers hull itself. Both may constitute an obstacle in case of vertical quaysides.
Spud carriage The application of a spud carriage is common practise for large CSDs. This increases the efficiency of the dredger significantly. The larger the stroke of the carriage the more swings can be made without spud repositioning and consequently the higher the efficiency of the dredger. Automation Large cutter dredgers are complex dredgers with complex operations. Therefore process automation and monitoring instrumentation are relevant because they will increase the efficiency of the dredger. Automation can be executed to a lot of levels, which depends on the Owners philosophy and the cost and skills of personnel.
Increased main dimensions of the dredger result in significant lower movements of the vessel in waves.
Autonomy
The rate of autonomy is a result of the availability of facilities at the dredging work location. Examples of facilities to increase the autonomy of a cutter dredger are:
- Deck crane and cutter changing equipment - Cutter repair platform - Spud tilting system - Anchor booms - Barge loading - Deadweight, tanks and store spaces
The material dredged from the seafloor is placed either by the dredger itself by pumps on deck, or by pipelines or barges.
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
BOTTOM SLIDING DOOR STONE DUMPING VESSEL DUMPING BARGE RAINBOWING DUMPING BARGE WITH RECESSED DOORS 6) PIPE UNDER WATER 7) CONE VALVES 8) PIPE UNDER WATER + DIFFUSER 9) SPLIT BARGE 10)PIPT ABOVE WATER 11)GRAB CRANE 12)GRAB CRANE + PIPE
CONCRETING
MATERIALS FOR UNDERWATER CONCRETE : 1) CEMENT : OPC or Rapid hardening cement, moderate to low C3A content, water cement ratio less than 0.45, pozzolanic materials like silica fume, blast furnace slag, etc of high quality may be added for strength / workability, high alumina cement should not be used. Minimum content of 400 kg / cubic metre 2) AGGREGATES : Natural sand or gravel, crushed rock. Rough cubic or spherical shape, consistent quality and grading, marine aggregates and those with shell content should not be used. 3) WATER : Clean and free from harmful matter, sea water must not be used in reinforced, pre- stressed, or structural underwater concrete, subjected to wetting and drying. 4) ADMIXTURES : Air-entraining agents to counter expansion contraction, workability aids and retarding admixtures. Admixtures containing more than 0.1%
5) REINFORCING STEEL: Plain Bars, deformed bars, welded fabrics may be used provided details of size, mechanical properties and bond properties supplied by manufacturer. 6) SHEATHING: Rigid or semi-rigid water-tight metal sheathing should be used. Should be spliced with tightly fitting sleeves and the joints bound with waterproof tape. 7) GROUT : Usually OPC cement, aggregates if used in large ducts should consist of siliceous granules, finely ground limestone, trass, pozzolan or fine sand ; admixtures to be used after testing, sea water should not be used.
CONCRETE PLACEMENT UNDERWATER: 1) TREMIE 2) SHIP MOUNTED BOOM 3) HOISTS, CRANES, ETC.
OTHER PROCESSES
BREAKWATER CONSTRUCTION:
Breakwater: A structure which breaks the force of the waves, it is constructed close to the island and acts as a protection against strong currents and winds. The breakwater is constructed using multiple layers of sand, a water permeable sheet, small rocks, and layers of armour rocks
BREAKWATER
VIBRO COMPACTION:
During an earthquake, water-saturated soils can lose their strength and transform into a liquid-like state. This process of liquefaction could cause the reclaimed islands to settle or sink. Thus special provisions need to be made to prepare the sand base under the structure so that it does not compact. This is done using vibro-compaction. Vibro Compaction is a process by which sand particles are caused to float, and then they are rearranged into a denser state. A vibration probe penetrates the soil and moves down via a combination of vibration, and jets of water and/or air. The vibrations of the probe reorganizes the soil