NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. Most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, Central and Peripheral.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

AXON DENDRITE fiber that carries messages away from the nerve cell fiber that carries messages from other neurons to the nerve cell body nerve cell part of the brain that controls balance and body motion

NEURON CEREBELLUM

CEREBRUM

large part of the brain that controls the senses and thinking

MEDULLA

part of the brain that controls heart beat and breathing rate automatic response to stimulus path of a message in a reflex action caused by a stimulus any action that causes a response organ that receives stimuli from the environment

REFLEX REFLEX ARC RESPONSE STIMULUS RECEPTOR

ENDOCRINE GLAND

gland that does not have ducts

GLAND

organ that makes chemical substances used or released by the body chemical substance that regulates body functions learned behavior in which a new stimulus causes the same response as the old one did behavior you are born with behavior you practice and learn are special neurons in the spinal cord that sends a reflex message back to the muscles in an emergency BEFORE the brain knows about it are sensory neurons or motor neurons that carry messages

HORMONE CONDITIONED RESPONSE INNATE BEHAVIOR LEARNED BEHAVIOR INTER NEURONS

RELAY NEURONS

TWO PARTS:

The Central Nervous System This includes the brain and the spinal cord. It is the decision maker. Tracts or pathways of fibers run between the various levels of the spinal cord and brain. These nerve cells are covered with a white protective substance called myelin. The Peripheral Nervous System The peripheral Nervous System is composed of two parts: the autonomic system and the somatic system .

The autonomic system is a motor system supplying impulses to most of the internal organs and smooth muscles of the body. It is an involuntary system over which there is a little conscious control. The autonomic nervous system is composed of two principal divisions: the sympathetic system and the parasymphathetic system

THE BRAIN

The Human Brain has an average weight of about 1.5 kilos. The ratio of brain weight to body weight is more significant psychologically than just brain weight. Behavior controlled by a larger brain is as simple and routine as that of a smaller one.

The brain contains at least 15billion nerve cells called neurons. The largest parts of the brain are the two cerebral hemispheres. Studies on the split brain theories led to many conclusions.
The brain is composed of three principal sections: the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain.

THE HINDBRAIN

The Hindbrain is the closest to the spinal cord. The lower part of the hindbrain, at the top of the spinal cord, is the brain stem which relays afferent messages from many of the sensory organs to the higher levels in the brain. It also relays efferent messages to the effectors.

THE MIDBRAIN

The Midbrain is located above the hindbrain, forming the upper part of the brain stem. It serves to relay afferent and efferent messages. The midbrain performs some reflex responses that are controlled by the hindbrain. It also controls more complex responses.

THE FOREBRAIN

The most complex and the biggest part of the human brain is the forebrain. It is composed of three Parts: the thalamus, the limbic system and the cortex. The Thalamus is a relay station where afferent messages pass. It serves as a switching point. The cortex is the most comlex part of the brain. It is made up of four lobes which are separated by deep valleys or fissures. The occipital lobe contain the primary visual center and an association area for visual recognition. Adjacent to this area is the visual reading association area which coordinates reading activities.

BRAIN HEMISPHERE

THE SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. It extends from the base of the brain through the center of spinal column. It sends messages from sensory neurons in various parts of the body to the brain and relays motor commands back to the muscles and organs through motor neurons.

THE EFFECTORS- MUSCLES AND GLANDS

Muscles are the most conspicuous effectors. There are three major kinds of muscles, namely: Striated, smooth and heart muscles. The muscles we feel just beneath our skin are made of long, thin fibers. These fibers are marked with Prominent cross-striations and are called striated muscles.

The smooth muscles are found in the walls of many of the larger blood vessels, in hollow organs, Such as the stomach, intestines and bladders in some regions of the skin and the ducts of many exocrine Glands. Smooth muscles are very strong and very resistant to fatigue. The heart muscle is made up of fibers joined together into a single mass. This predisposes the heart to contract as a unit whenever it beats and thus conforms to the action pattern that will pump blood efficiently.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLES:

Contractility- to become shorter Elasticity- to expand and return to original shape Tonacity- to partially contract Extensibility- to become longer Irratibility- to react to external stimuli

ENDOCTRINE GLANDS

One of the most important biological structures that plays a significant role in the development of an organism and its routine function is the bodys system of ductless glands or endoctrine glands. These glands pass their secretions directly into the bloodstream. The chemical substances secreted by the endoctrines are called hormones or autacoids.

THE ENDOCTRINE SYSTEM IS COMPOSED OF THE FOLLOWING GLANDS:

Pituitary(Hypophysis) is called the master gland because it controls and activates the whole endoctrine system.

Thyroids these paired glands are located alongside the trachea in the neck. thyroid gland secretes thyroxin, which affect body metabolism and help control the rate of physical growth.

Parathyroid these are two pairs of small glands which secrete parathormone. this hormone regulates the level of calcium and phosphorus chemical elements which are important in nerve activity.
Adrenals located at the upper end of the kidneys are the two adrenal glands: the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

Gonads these sex glands begin to influence development during the onset of adolescence, the period of life when sexual maturation or puberty occurs. Isles of Langerhans clusters of special cells secreting insulin float in the pancreas. This substance is primarily responsible for the control of blood sugar level. Pineal Body this gland is located between the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain. Thymus this is known as the gland of childhood as it keeps a child childish. Located within the chest cavity, it inhibits the glands and sexuality in the childhood years.

NERVE CELLS/NEURONS
The basic structural unit or building block of the nervous system is the neuron or nerve cell. Like all cells, it is filled with cytoplasm, which is the living material forming the body of the cell. The cells is enclosed within a membrane and contains a nucleus. Each nerve cell has long fibers called axon and shorter fiber called dendrites.

NEURONS HAVE TWO COMMON FEATURES:

1.Irritability is the ability of the neuron to respond to stimulation. In response to proper stimulation, all neurons will fire.

2.Conductivity is the ability of the nerves to relay impulses or stimulation from one point in the body to another.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Neurotransmitters are chemical substances produced by axons that transmit messages across the synapse. It regulates movement, learning, memory, sleep, feelings and emotion. It also stimulates mental and physical alertness.

THE MOST RECENTLY DISCOVERED NEUROTRANSMITTER ARE:

Anandomine discovered in the early 1990s, it affects memory, motor coordination and emotion.

Nitricoxide affects aggression and the regulation of emotion.

FUNCTION OF SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Opens (dilates) the pupil to allow light in Decrease salivation Increases heart rate Increases flow of air in the lungs and inhibits digestive tract (turinary bladder,pancreas, stomach and intestine). Increases blood flow

FUNCTION OF THE PARASYMPHATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Closes/constricts the pupil of the eyes Increases salivation Decreases heart rate Decreases flow of air in the lungs and activates the digestive tract Decreases blood flow

NEURAL FUNCTIONING

The basic pattern of neural activity is the stimulus-response(S-R) sequence. The S-R sequence is as follows: A stimulus strikes a receptors The receptor stimulates the dendrites of a sensory neuron

The impulse crosses the synaptic connection or junction and stimulates the dendrites of a connector neuron in the spinal cord
The impulse passes another synapse from the connector neuron to the dendrites of an efferent or outgoing neuron The impulse passes along the efferent fiber to its endbrush An effector- a muscles or gland-responds

THREE TYPES OF NEURONS ARE INVOLVED:

Afferent neurons Internuncial or associative neurons Efferent neurons

The nervous system composed of afferent, associative and efferent neurons is a network of neurons connecting receptors with effectors.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) INCLUDES:

Brain or encephalon, which occupies cranial cavity, and contains the higher governing centers. Spinal cord or spinal medulla, which occupies upper two-thirds of the vertebral canal, and contains many reflex centers.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) INCLUDES:

Cerebrospinal nervous system is the somatic component of the peripheral nervous system, which includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31pairs of spinal nerves. It innervates the somatic structures of the head and neck, limbs and body wall, and mediates somatic sensory and motor functions. Peripheral autonomic nervous system is the visceral component of the peripheral nervous system, which includes the visceral or splanchnic nerves that are connected to the CNS through the somatic nerves. It innervates the viscera, glands, blood vessels and non-striated muscles, and mediates the visceral functions.

DISEASES AND AILMENTS AND HOW TO TREAT THEM.

Alzheimers disease

Alzheimers disease is a progressive brain disorder that gradually destroys a persons memory and ability to learn, reason, make judgments, communicate and carry out daily activities. As Alzheimers progresses, individuals may also experience changes in personality and behavior, such as anxiety, suspiciousness or agitation, as well as delusions or hallucinations.

Prevention: It is advisable to avoid cooking acidic fruits in aluminium pans to avoid contamination with aluminium. Researchers from the Karolinska Institute in Sweden have found that people who exercise at least twice a week are 60% less likely to get Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia. The most common type of exercise is walking and cycling.

EPILEPSY

Epilepsy : A brain disorder characterized by sudden surges of disorganized electrical impulses in the brain, which leads to seizures (attacks). Many people will have a single seizure at some time in their lives, but this does not mean that they have epilepsy. If a person has epilepsy it means they have had more than one seizure that began in the brain.

Persons most commonly affected: All age groups and both sexes.

Prevention: Many people are able to keep their seizures to a minimum by avoiding situations that they know may bring on a seizure, sometimes called triggers. These triggers may include lack of sleep, too much alcohol, emotional upsets or missing medication. Taking care of a person's overall wellbeing is a vital part of the complete management of their epilepsy.

HEADACHE

Description: Pain or ache in the head and the neck region. Prevention: To avoid headaches caused by food additives, eat meals that you have prepared from whole foods. Make sure you get enough fiber to reduce the chance of headaches induced by constipation or toxic build up. Also include sources of both calcium and magnesium in your diet. Soy products, green leafy vegetables, and beans are all rich in calcium. Green leafy vegetables abd bran are good sources of magnesium as well, as are nuts, bananas, and wheat germ. Avoid caffeine, alcohol, and sugar products. Very cold foods can also cause headaches. Ice cream and cold drinks are frequent culprits, so avoid them.

RECENT FINDINGS (OCTOBER 2009)

This review summarizes the data obtained with the aid of the recently introduced dual viral tracing technique, which uses isogenic recombinants of pseudorabies virus that express unique reporter gene. This approach made possible to explore simultaneously neural circuits of two organs. The results of these studies indicate: (1) there are neurons innervating exclusively a given organ; (2) leftsided predominance in the supraspinal innervation of the endocrine glands (adrenal, ovary) studied, so far;

(3) viral co-infection of neurons, i.e., special neuronal populations coexist in different brain areas that are transsynaptically connected with both paired endocrine and non-endocrine organs, endocrine glands and non-endocrine organs, and organs of bodily systems other than the endocrine one. The number of common neurons seems to be related to the need of coordinating action of different systems. The data on co-infection of neurons suggest that the central nervous system has the capacity to coordinate different organ functions via common brain neurons providing supraspinal innervation of the organs.

ANG GALING NI PATNON!