Unit 1

Introduction to Information System Development

System Analysis and Design

In business, System Analysis and Design refers to the

process of examining a business situation with the intent of improving it through better procedures and methods. System development having two major components:
System analysis System design.

System design is the process of planning a new business

system or one to replace or complement an existing system. System analysis is the process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing problems, and using the information to recommend improvements to the system. Example of Stockroom operation of clothing store. Analysis specifies what the system should do. Design states how to accomplish the objective.

What System analysis is not

It is not: studying a business to see which existing

process should be handled by computer and which should be done by noncomputerized methods. It is not: Determining what changes should be made. It is not: Determining how best to solve an information system problem.

Systems Analysts' work

Role of System Analyst differs from organization to

organization. Most common responsibilities of System Analyst are following

System analysis only (Information analyst): It includes

system's study in order to get facts about business activity. It is about getting information and determining requirements. Here the responsibility includes only requirement determination, not the design of the system. System analysis and design (System Designers, applications developer): Here apart from the analysis work, Analyst is also responsible for the designing of the new system/application. Systems analysis, design, and programming (Programmer analyst): Here Analyst is also required to perform as a programmer, where he actually writes the code to implement the design of the proposed application.

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In addition to the technical know-how of the information

system development a system analyst should also have the following knowledge.
Business knowledge: As the analyst might have to

develop any kind of a business system, he should be familiar with the general functioning of all kind of businesses. Interpersonal skills: Such skills are required at various stages of development process for interacting with the users and extracting the requirements out of them Problem solving skills: A system analyst should have enough problem solving skills for defining the alternate solutions to the system and also for the problems occurring at the various stages of the development

Who are the users of system (System End Users)?

Hands-on users:
They actually interact with the system. They are the people who

feed in the input data and get output data. Like person at the booking counter of a gas authority. This person actually sees the records and registers requests from various customers for gas cylinders.
Indirect end users:
Indirect end users who do not interact with the systems

hardware and software. However, these users benefit from the results of these systems. These types of users can be managers of organization using that system.
User Manager:
They have management responsibilities for application systems.

These oversee investment in the development or use of the system.

Senior managers:

Business system concepts

What is a System?
A system is simply a set of components that interact to

accomplish some purpose.

Nervous system of human body

Components can be brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensitive cells

under your skin.

A business is also a system.
Define components

Every business system depends on Information system. This system is the means by which data flow from one

person or department to another via email, telephone links to computer system that generates periodic reports for various users. Information system serve all the systems of a business, linking the different components in such a way that they

Characteristics of System
Objective:
Every system has a predefined goal or objective towards

which it works. A system cannot exist without a defined objective.

Standards:
It is the acceptable level of performance for any system.

Systems should be designed to meet standards. Standards can be business specific or organization specific.
Feed Back
Feedback is an important element of systems. The output

of a system needs to be observed and feedback from the output taken so as to improve the system and make it

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Environment
It is very important for a system to adapt itself to its

environment. Also, for a system to exist it should change according to the changing environment.
Boundaries and Interfaces
Every system has defined boundaries within which it

operates. Beyond these limits the system has to interact with the other systems. Interfaces are another important element through which the system interacts with the outside world. System interacts with other systems through its interfaces. Users of the systems also interact with it through interfaces. Therefore, these should be customized to the user needs. These should be as user friendly as possible.

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System interact with their environments, which are any

entities outside the boundaries of the system.

An open system is a system which continuously interacts

with its environment. Close system are the type of system that do not interact with the environment. Closed systems are closed off from the outside environment, and all interaction and knowledge is transmitted within the closed system only. All ongoing systems are open, close system exists as a concept.

Categories of Information System

Information systems differ in their business needs. Also depending upon different levels in organization

information systems differ. There are three major information systems: Transaction Processing Systems (TPS):
TPS are aimed at improving the routine business activities on

which all organizations depends. A transaction is any event or activity that affects the organization. For example, placing orders, billing customers, hiring employees, deposit checks etc are all transactions. Any query made to it is a transaction. All firms process transactions as a major part of their daily business activity.

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Management Information Systems(MIS):
TPS are operation-oriented and MIS assist managers in

decision making and problem solving. They use the results of transaction processing and some other information also. It is a set of information processing functions. MIS helps in taking structured decision, it means managers know what factor to consider in making the decision.

Production scheduling

Inventory reporting

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Decision Support Systems (DIS):
Not all decisions are of a recurring nature. Some occurs only

once or infrequently. DSS assist higher management to make long term decisions or not highly structured or semi structured decisions. A decision is considered unstructured if there are no clear procedures for making the decision and if not all the factors to be considered in the decision can be readily identified in advance. These are not of recurring nature. In this case it is impossible to design predefine system reports or formats and contents. A DSS therefore must have greater flexibility.. The user should be able to produce customized reports by giving particular data and format specific to particular situations. The data needed may originate from different files or databases. DSS plays vital role in decision making but does not replace manager judgment.

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Categories of Information System Transaction Processing System

Characteristics Substitutes computer-based processing for manual procedures. Deals with well-structured processes. Includes record keeping applications.

Management information system

Provides input to be used in the managerial decision process. Deals with supporting well structured decision situations. Typical information requirements can be anticipated.

Decision support system

Provides information to managers who must make judgments about particular situations. Supports decision-makers in situations that are not well structured.

Information System Components

A system is a set of components working together to

achieve some goal. The basic elements of the system may be listed as: Resources:
Every system requires certain resources for the system to

exist. Resources can be hardware, software or liveware. Hardware resources may include the computer, its peripherals, stationery etc. Software resources would include the programs running on these computers and the liveware would include the human beings required to operate the system and make it functional. For instance, a Banking system cannot function without the required stationery like cheque books, pass books etc. such systems also need computers to maintain their data and

 Procedures:
Every system functions under a set of rules that govern the

system to accomplish the defined goal of the system. This set of rules defines the procedures for the system. For instance, the Banking systems have their predefined rules for providing interest at different rates for different types of accounts.
Data/Information:
Every system has some predefined goal. For achieving the goal

the system requires certain inputs, which are converted into the required output. The main objective of the System is to produce some useful output. Output is the outcome of processing. Output can be of any nature e.g. goods, services or information. However, the Output must conform to the customer's expectations. Inputs are the elements that enter the system and produce Output. Input can be of various kinds, like material,

 Intermediate Data:
Various processes process system's Inputs. Before it is

transformed into Output, it goes through many intermediary transformations. Therefore, it is very important to identify the Intermediate Data. For example, in a college when students register for a new semester, the initial form submitted by student goes through many departments. Each department adds their validity checks on it. Finally the form gets transformed and the student gets a slip that states whether the student has been registered for the requested subjects or not. It helps in building the System in a better way. Intermediate forms of data occur when there is a lot of

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Processes:
The systems have some processes that make use of the

resources to achieve the set goal under the defined procedures. These processes are the operational element of the system. For instance in a Banking system there are several processes that are carried out. Consider for example the processing of a cheque as a process. A cheque passes through several stages before it actually gets processed and converted. These are some of the processes of the Banking system. All these components together make a complete functional system.

System Development Methodology

A software development methodology or system

development methodology in software engineering is a framework that is used to structure, plan, and control the process of developing an information system. System development methodologies are promoted as a means of improving the management and control of the software development process, structuring and simplifying the process, and standardizing the development process and product by specifying activities to be done and techniques to be used. It is often assumed that the use of a system development methodology will improve system development productivity and quality.

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There are three distinct approaches to the development

of computer information system.

System Development Life Cycle Structured Analysis and Development Method System prototype method

System Development Life Cycle

System development process starts when management

or sometimes a system development personnel realize that a particular business system needs improvement. The SDLC method is classically thought of as the set of activities that analysts, designers and users carry out to develop and implement an information system. There are six activities that make up the SDLC. All activities are closely related and inseparable, and even the order of activities may be difficult to analyze. Analysts disagree on exactly how many phases there are in the SDLC, but they generally laud its organized approach. Different parts of project can be in various phases at the same time.

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Activities of SDLC:
Preliminary investigation Determination of system requirement Design of system Development of software

System testing
Implementation and Evaluation

System Development Life Cycle

Preliminary investigatio n Implementatio n and Evaluation Determination of system requirement

System testing Developme nt of software

Design of system

1. Preliminary Investigation:
A request for information system can be made for many

reasons. In each case- a manger, an employee, or a systems specialist- initiates the request. When the request is made this activity begins. It has three parts:
Request clarification Feasibility study

Request approval

Request clarification:
Many requests are not clearly stated. Before any investigation is considered, the request must be

examined to determine what the originator wants.

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Feasibility study:
An important outcome of this phase is the determination that the system requested is feasible. There are three aspects of feasibility study. 1. Technical feasibility:
Can the work for project be done with current equipment, existing software technology, and available personnel? If new technology is required, what is the likelihood that it can be developed?

2. Economic feasibility:
Are there sufficient benefits in creating the system to make the costs acceptable? Or, are the costs of not creating the system so great that the project must be undertaken?

3. Operational feasibility:
Will the system be used if it is developed and implemented? Will there be resistance from users that will undermine the possible application benefits?

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It is carried out by a small group of people who are familiar with

information system techniques as well as part of the business that will be involved or affected by the project as well as skilled in the system analysis and design process. People involve dare generally experienced analysts or managers.

Request approval: Not all requested projects are desirable or feasible. Those projects that are feasible and desirable should be put into schedule. After a project request is approved, its cost, priority, completion time and personal requirement are estimated.

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2. Determination of System Requirement:
Detailed understanding of all important facts of the

business area under investigation is a main activity of system analysis. Analysts, working closely with employees and managers, must study the business process to answer these key questions:
What is being done? How it is being done?

How frequently does it occur?

How great is the volume of transactions or decisions? How well is the task being performed? Does a problem exists?

If a problem exists, how serious it is?

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To answer to these questions analyst talk to variety of

persons to gather details about the business process and their opinions of why things happen as they do and their ideas about changing the process. Questionnaires are used to collect the information from the large group of people. Detail investigation is also require to study of manuals and reports, actual observation of work activity, collection of sample forms and documents to understand the system. After gathering all the details, the analysts study the requirements data to identify features the new system should have. It should include the information the system should

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3. Design of System:
This phase produces the details that state how a system

will meet the requirements identified during systems analysis. This is also referred as logical design, where as development is referred as physical design. System analyst begin the design process by identifying reports and other outputs the system will produce. Designers sketch the form or display as they expect it to appear when the system is complete. This may be done on paper or on computer display, using one of the automated system design tools. The System design also specify data to input, calculated and stored. Designers select file structure and storage devices, the

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The output of this phase contain document which can

contain
Charts, Tables, Special symbols and outline of forms.

Designers provide complete and clearly outlined

software specification to programmers.

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4. Development of Software:
Once the design is complete, most of the major decisions

about the system have been made. The goal of the coding phase is to translate the design of the system into code in a given programming language. A well written code reduces the testing and maintenance effort. Since the testing and maintenance cost of software are much higher than the coding cost, the goal of coding should be to reduce the testing and maintenance effort. Programmers are also responsible for documenting the program, providing explanation of how and why certain procedure are coded in specific ways. Documentation is essential to test the program and carry on maintenance.

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5. System Testing:
Testing is the major quality control measure employed

during software development. Its basic function is to detect errors in the software. After the coding phase, computer programs are available that can be executed for testing phases. This implies that testing not only has to uncover errors introduced during coding, but also errors introduced during the previous phases. Thus, the goal of testing is to uncover requirement, design or coding errors in the programs. Different levels of testing are employed.

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The starting point of testing is unit testing. In this a module

is tested separately and is often performed by the coder himself simultaneously with the coding of the module. The purpose is to execute the different parts of the module code to detect coding errors. After this the modules are gradually integrated into subsystem, which are then integrated themselves eventually form the entire system. During integration of modules, integration testing is performed. The goal of this testing is to detect design errors, while focusing on testing the interconnection between modules. After the system is put together, system testing is performed. Here the system is tested against tech system requirements to see if all the requirements are met and the system performs as specified by the requirements. Finally, acceptance testing is performed to demonstrate to the

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During testing, the system is used experimentally to

ensure that software does not fail. It will run according to its specifications and in the way users expect. Special test data are input for the processing and result examined. In many organizations, testing is performed by persons other than those who wrote it to ensure unbiased testing and more reliable software.

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6. Implementation and Evaluation:
Implementation is the process of having System personal check out and put new equipment to use, Train users, Install the new application, Construct any files of data needed to use it. Pilot test can be done depending on size of organization and

risk to software. As time goes, application have to be maintained, changes and modification will be made to software, files or procedures to meet emerging user requirements. Implementation is an ongoing process. Evaluation of the system is performed to identify its strengths and weaknesses. Actual evaluation can be done with following dimensions:

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Operational Evaluation: Assessment of the manner in which the system functions, including Ease of use, Response time, Suitability of information formats, Overall reliability and Level of utilization. Organizational impact: Identification and measurement of benefits to the organization as financial concerns Operational efficiency, Competitive impact. User management assessment: Evaluation of the attitude of senior and user managers within organization, as well as end user. Development Performance: Check with overall development time and effort, Conformance to budget and standards and other project management criteria.

Structured Analysis Development Method

What is structured Analysis?
Structured Analysis focuses on specifying what the system or

application Required to do . It does not state how the requirements should be accomplished or how the application should be implemented.
ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURED ANALYSIS:

1) Graphic Description 2) Data Flow Diagram 3) Data Dictionary Graphic Description:

To prepare a narrative outlining its features, identifying the

function it serves, describing how it interact with other elements, etc. Instead of words, it uses symbols or icons to create a graphical modem of a system.

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Show details of the system without introducing manual or

computer process, tape or disc file or any procedures.

Data Flow Diagram:

It is known as System model. Set of DFD consist of full description of a system. Follows top-down process. Each process can be broken down into more detail DFD. Shows processes and flow of data in and out of these processes. Does not show control structures (loops, etc.) Uses layers to decompose complex systems

Data Dictionary:
Definitions of elements in the system- data flows,

processes and data stores are described in detail in Data

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What is Structured Design?
The goal of structured design is to create program

consisting of functionally independent module that perform relatively independent of each other. It is a program design technique, not a design method. Does not specify file, or database design, input and output layout, processing sequence or hardware. Lead to the specification of program modules that are functionally independent. Fundamental tool is structure chart. Describe interaction between independent modules and data passing between modules that interact with each other.

System Prototype Method

What is a Prototype?
A prototype is a working system that is developed to test ideas

and assumption about the new system. It can accept inputs, perform calculations, produce information. Design and information is evaluated by users. Can be done effectively if data is real and the situation is live.
Reasons for System Prototyping
Requirement are not always well defined. User may know only

that certain business areas need improvement or procedures must be changed. They dont know what they need. Unique situations, about which developers have neither information nor experience, high cost and high risk situation. Ex. Sales data from mobile. It is pilot or test model.

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In following conditions prototype model is useful: No system with the characteristic of one proposed has yet been constructed by developers. Essential features of the system are only partially known Experience in using the system will significantly add to the list of requirements the system should meet. The system users will participate in development process. Underlying principal is: Users can point to features they

like or dislike and so indicate shortcoming in an existing and working system more easily then they can describe them in a theoretical or proposed system. Experience and use produce more meaningful comments then analysis of charts and narrative proposal. It is an interactive process.

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Steps in Prototyping:
Identify the users known requirements and features needed in

the system. Develop a working system. Use the prototype, noting needed enhancements and changes. These expand the list of known system requirement. Revise the prototype based on information gained through user experience. Repeat these steps as needed to achieve a satisfactory system.

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When user and analyst decide that sufficient

information has been gained from prototype, one of the following alternative is selected:
The prototype is redeveloped. This alternative mean

complete reprogramming from scratch. The prototype is implemented as the complete system. Performance efficiency and methods for user interaction may be sufficient to allow the system to use as it is. The project is abandoned. Gained enough information to show that a system can not be developed to meet desired objective. Another prototype series is begun. Information gained may suggest an entirely different approach or contrasting features.

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Methods for prototype development:
Speed of development is more important than efficiency. Created quickly, within few days or weeks. Relatively inexpensive to build, not so efficient. Features and final touches like heading, title, page number on

reports may be missing. File organization may be temporary. Documentation is avoided. Emphasis is on trying ideas and providing assumption about requirement. Segments of programs may be taken from other systems or from libraries of reusable program code. There are certain application generators that generate other programs, to support prototyping efforts.

Tools for System Development

A tool is any device that when used properly, improve the performance of a task. Tools are grouped into the categories of system analysis, design and development. 1) Analysis Tools:

Assist systems specialists in documenting an existing system, whether manual or automated, determining the requirements for new application. a)Data Collection Tools: Captures details describing current system and procedures. Document the activities. Assist in requirement identification. b)Charting Tools: Create graphic representations of systems and activities. Drawing and revising DFDs and icons with structured analysis. c)Dictionary Tools: Record and maintain description of

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Design Tools: Assist in formulating the features of the system that will meet the requirements outlined during the analysis a) Specification Tools: stating the features that should be included in an application, such as input, output, processing and control specification. Help in creating data specification. b) Layout Tools: Used to describe position of data, message and heading on display screen, reports and other input and output media. 3) Development Tools: Helps while translating designs into functioning application. a) Software Engineering Tools: Assist in formulating software designs. b) Code Generators: Produce source code and working application from functional specification that are well
2)