Sampling for Research

Non-Probability and Probability Techniques

John J. Green, Ph.D.

Institute for Community-Based Research Division of Social Sciences/Center for Community and Economic Development Delta State University Fall 2005

Why Sample?
Population: The group of cases that the researcher is studying and wants to generalize to. It includes all relevant cases sharing some common characteristic.

Sample: A number of individual cases selected (drawn or pulled) from a larger population. In reality, we actually select the sample cases from what is known as the sampling frame. We sample as a means to an end. To study a group and be able to say something about it without having to study every case in the population, we must sample.
It is often the case that attempting to study every case in the entire group will be too overwhelming and/or costly. Furthermore, given the totality of constraints, we may end up with more errors than we would through sampling. (Note that this aspect of social measurement is highlighted in the debate over sampling for the Census).

Types of Samples: Non-Probability

Non-Probability Sample: A sample that has been drawn in a way that doesnt give every member of the population a known chance of being selected. (Adler and Clark 2001, p. 550, emphasis added). Convenience samples are obtained from a pre-existing group of people or other units of analysis that are thought to represent the target population. Purposive samples consist of people whom you feel are important to the study because of specific personal traits, where they live, the work they do, or their involvement in a particular issue. Sometimes it is helpful to use quota criteria. Snow-ball sampling involves a process of chain referrals. You begin with a small group of people and ask them who else you might want to speak with.

Non-Probability Sample When to Use

Non-probability samples can be used effectively in a wide variety of circumstances. . .

When a group that represents the target population already exists.

When it is impossible or overly difficult to obtain a list of names for sampling. (Example homeless.) When research is exploratory in nature and all of the cases of interest may not be identified ahead of time. It is critical to recognize that you cannot generalize with any known degree of accuracy from a non-probability sample. In other words, the data represent those units of analysis you actually studied.

Types of Samples: Probability

Probability Sample: A sample selected in such a way that every case has a known chance of being selected. Probability samples are based on probability theory and the ability to later use inferential statistics to compute the likelihood that sample characteristics are representative of the population. Probability samples allow for computation of the confidence that the sample and findings drawn from it are representative of the larger population. It is on this basis that we often refer to confidence intervals and confidence levels. These are what we use to account for the error between our sample and the population.

Probability Sampling (contd)

Simple Random Sample: A probability sample in which every member of a study population has been given an equal chance of selection.

Stratified Random Sample: A probability sample in which the study population is divided into smaller groups or strata on the basis of some important characteristic. Simple random samples are then selected from each stratum.
Cluster Sample: A probability sample where clusters of elements within the study population are sampled. Then, every case within the selected element is chosen for study. Multi-stage Sample: A probability sample that involves two or more stages, typically combining different sampling strategies. For example, clusters of elements from a study population may be sampled, followed by a sample of cases within each element.

Comparing a random sample to the population (Delta Rural Poll).

Total population distribution, by county.

Total sample distribution, by county.

Self-Rated Health (Entire Sample, n = 797)

Self-Rated Health, Small Sample (n = 10)

400

Entire sampling frame, n = 787

Random sample of 10 from 787

300

Frequency

Frequency
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 Mean = 2.1578 Std. Dev. = 0.86948 5.00 N = 797

200

100

0 0.00

Recoded - In general, would you say your health is excellent, good, fair or poor?

Cases weighted by Weight by County, Race & Gender

Illustration of variable values from a random sample (Delta Rural Poll). Self-Rated Health, Another Small Sample (n = 10)
Different sample of 10 from 787 Random sample of 30 from 787
Frequency

0 0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

Mean = 1.80 Std. Dev. = 1.0328 5.00 N = 10

Recoded - In general, would you say your health is excellent, good, fair or poor?

Self-Rated Health, Moderate Sample (n = 30)

14

12

10

Frequency

4 1 2 Mean = 2.50 Std. Dev. = 0.97183 5.00 N = 10 Mean = 2.50 Std. Dev. = 0.93772 5.00 N = 30

0 0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

0 0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

Recoded - In general, would you say your health is excellent, good, fair or poor?

Recoded - In general, would you say your health is excellent, good, fair or poor?

Illustration of a multi-stage sample (Quality of Life Assessment).

Map of town is divided into blocks. Each block is numbered. A random sample of blocks is chosen using a random number generator. Every fifth or seventh house is chosen for the study, based on the relative number of houses in the block.
Self-Rated Health (Ruleville, n = 49)
30

25

A total of fifty face-to-face interviews were completed.

Frequency

20

15

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5

Mean = 2.92 Std. Dev. = 0.759 N = 49

In general, would you say that your health is excellent, good, fair or poor?