History of Control Hardware

Pneumatic Implementation:
In the early implementation of automatic control systems, information flow was accomplished by pneumatic transmission, and computation was done by mechanical devices using bellows, spring etc. Problems associated with pneumatic implementation: Transmission. Calculation

Analog implementation:
Electrons are used as the medium of transmission in his type of implementation mode. Analog computation devices are used. Problems associated with analog implementation: Transmission. Calculation

An analog control room.

History (cont.)
Digital Implementation:
Transmission: Digital signals are far less sensitive to noise. Calculation: The computational devices are digital computers.

Advantages of Digital Implementation:

1.Accuracy and stability 2.Capable of more sophisticated calculations and algorithms. 3.Easily reconfigurable without any change in hardware. 4.Reduced wiring cost and control room sizes.

Computer Control Networks

Computer control is usually carried out in two modes: supervisory control direct digital control.

Computer Control Networks

Computer control is usually carried out in two modes: supervisory control direct digital control.

Computer Control Networks

Distributed Control System:
Control system comprising of geographically and functionally distributed hardware and software, which not only performs the assigned control and monitoring function but also provides information, data from many subsystems to other subsystems over dedicated communication network. Advantage of DCS over centralized: 1.System overloading reduced 2.Back-up/Redundancy available 3.More Computing power(parallel processing) 4.Improved reliability as plant can survive failure of one processor

EVOLUTION OF DCS
1959: The first industrial control computer system was built at the Texaco
Port Arthur, Texas, refinery of the Ramo Wooldridge Company. These computers could not be used for real time control. Instead they were used for supervision, printing instructions for the process operator, or changing set points of analog control equipment. The analog equipment then still performed the control, but with the help of a computer.

1960: Specialized Computers for process control was built in the

beginning of the 1960s. The IBM 1800 was an early computer that had input/output hardware to gather process signals in a plant for conversion from field contact levels (for digital points) and analog signals to the digital domain.

The Harvard Mark I computer from 1944.

The IBM 1800 from 1961.

EVOLUTION OF DCS
1962:The next leap in process control was made in 1962 when the
British chemical company Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) replaced a complete analog control system in an ammonia/soda plant by an Argus computer. Instead of just being used for supervisory tasks for the analog control system, a computer was now actually performing the control. This form of pure digital control would come to be called Direct Digital Control (DDC).
In the years to come DDC langauges emerged which made it almost trivial to implement control designs in DDC systems. No programming was required, one simply organized I/O configurations and connections in tables and the DDC system would then execute the control based on these tables.

An Argus computer from 1961 by Ferranti.

EVOLUTION OF DCS
1970:With the birth of the minicomputers in the mid 60s came more
opportunities. Minicomputers meant that computers became cheaper, faster, and more reliable. Cheaper meant that it became profitable to implement smaller systems with computers instead of analog control systems.

The invention of the microcomputers in the early 70s was the final blow to the analog control systems. The price was brought down drastically.Then it was cheaper to implement it with a computer than with analog devices.

1975:

Both Honeywell and Japanese electrical engineering firm Yokogawa introduced their own independently produced DCSs at roughly the same time, with the TDC 2000 and CENTUM systems, respectively. Digital communication between distributed controllers, workstations and other computing elements (peer to peer access) was one of the primary advantages of the DCS. Attention was duly focused on the networks.

 Development in Networking brings another revolution in DCS.

EVOLUTION OF DCS

1980:The system installed at the University of Melbourne used a serial

communications network, connecting campus buildings back to a control room. In control room there was a central system with 11 Z80 microprocessors sharing tasks and memory which coordinated distributed controllers. The typical network of choice for this time period was the IEEE 802.4 Token Bus Network. Another big topic during the 80s was the development of new control languages. Object orientation was also introduced for process control by Midac in 1982.

A Z80 microprocessor.

EVOLUTION OF DCS
1990:With the introduction of distributed control came the necessity to
communicate between the devices and the controllers. One issue was that the systems were closed and that there was no standard communication protocol to connect them with. Another issue was that even though the controllers were now digitalized,the controller still communicated with the devices using analog signals. A large drive was thus towards digitalization of the communication with the devices and standardization of the communication. Several dominant fieldbuses are-Profibus PA, FOUNDATION,

ControlNet, DeviceNet, and ModBus. Probably the biggest transition undertaken during this time was the move from the UNIX operating system to the Windows environment. Practically everything above the real-time level was now written to run on Windows.

EVOLUTION OF DCS
Before the 90s the DCS companies were hardware centered, producing practically everything used in the control system themselves, both hardware and software. During the 90s commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products emerged of which some could do almost the same thing as the self-produced hardware. Producing some of the hardware was thus no longer justifiable and the DCS companies slowly started to move towards being more software centered. This is transition that is still going on today.

DCS HARDWARE COMPONENTS

I/O Module: Input/output modules provide the main interface between the DCS and the process being controlled. They convert the information provided by the process instruments into digital form. They also provide signal filtering and contact debouncing . In some instances, they can also do alarming, signal characterizing, and low-level logic. Type of Input / Output Modules :AI (Analog Input Conventional/ Smart / HART / Foundation Fieldbus),AO (Analog output Conventional /Smart / HART/Foundation Fieldbus),DI (Digital Input),DO (Digital Output). Controller module: Controller modules are the true brains of a DCS. Their primary function is to use continuously updated information from I/O modules and then perform the complex logic and analog loop calculations needed to produce the controller output signals that keep process variables at the desired values. . Controllers can be implemented in simplex or redundant configurations per user requirement.

DCS HARDWARE COMPONENTS

Power Supply Modules: Provides the power supply to various modules as required. Data Highway: If controller modules are the brains of a DCS, then the data highway is its backbone. It is an active component through which pass the system's messages and file transfers, all in real time. The data highway should almost always be made redundant. The following are the principal issues to be addressed when evaluating a DCS data highway: 1.Variation in protocol types (most are proprietary) 2. Peer-to-peer versus collision-detection-based communications 3. Speed of data transmission 4. Maximum transmission distance DCS data highway is an ethernet based network.Usually it uses TCP/IP protocol as communication protocol .Speed of communication is 100Mbps.

DCS HARDWARE COMPONENTS

Engineering console: Main Engineer interface device through which the system configuration and maintenance engineer can interface with the system. Operator Station and HMI Each station supports control, monitoring, and configuration of the entire system. This allows a uniform graphical interface for all plant operations.Operator interface replaces the previously panel mounted start stop pushbuttons and status indications,chart recorders,annunciators.Then comes faceplate-type display and atlast it is eplaced by graphic dispays. The operator interface hardware : It consists of CRT displays, keyboards and other access devices, and hardcopy devices. It also includes power supplies, disk drive units, and card files. CRT DISPLAY MONITORS: CRT monitors operate through a dedicated video module that has its own processor , which may support alphanumeric keyboards, mice or trackballs, and an alarm horn. Monitors may include a touchscreen display as an optional feature. With this option, the user selects display objects by touching a menu on the screen.

DCS HARDWARE COMPONENTS

ALPHANUMERIC KEYBOARD : The alphanumeric keyboard is a regular computer terminal keyboard, with the standard QWERTY key arrangement and ASCII formatted output. It may have additional keys to help the engineer configure the data base, build displays, and set up system application packages such as historical trending. TRACKBALL AND MOUSE : The trackball is a cursor control device. It allows users to control the cursor position by manually rotating a mechanical ball whose position is converted into data signals that are equivalent to those generated by the normal cursor control keys. The trackball also has a push button to acknowledge alarms and messages and to select an action. HARDCOPY DEVICES : Hardcopy devices include printers. The printer is used for alarm and event logging, graphics, and reports. Interface Displays: 1.Plant overview displays 2.Group display 3.trend display 4.Detail displays 5.alarm displays

Plant overview displays

A graphical display of the whole plant provides a graphical and logical representation of the process which makes it easier for operators to visualize what is happening.

group display
Shows the operating parameters of group of control loops such as four, eight, twelve, or sixteen control loops, arranged in rows so that they look like the faces of instruments on an instrument panel.

Trend Displays
- Trend displays are the distributed control system equivalents of chart records. - Shows change in process value that have taken place over a period of time

Plant overview displays

 Detail Display:It is specific to a single loop or control function.The bar graph in the faceplate display can show the controlled process variable,the set pt,and the output.The transmitters or other sources from which these signals are received are also listed in the screen.

Alarm Summary Display: shows a list of Current Alarms and Unacknowledged Alarms. Eachtime an Alarm occurs, a line is entered in the Alarm Summary describing the alarm. Acknowledgement by the operator changes the color (or flashing color) to indicate acknowledgement. As alarms return to Normal, they disappear from the Alarm Summary.

Control Language
The IEC 61131-3 standard defines four control languages for process control and manufacturing automation . Three of these languages use graphical representation of the control,as follows: Function block: Allows both continuous and discrete control represented by reusable blocks of functionality.The information flow between blocks is by wiring between the functional block input and output connections.Basic blocks are-DI,DO,AI,AO,PID,PD,P,Control Selector(CS),Ratio Station(RS). Sequential function chart: Defines calculations and control where the logic evaluation is done in a sequential manner and may follow different paths depending on the operating conditions. Ladder diagram: Allows discrete logic to be implemented as rungs of contact,coils,and functional blocks.It has been utilized in discrete control and in motor control interlock and permissive logic applications.

Following functional requirements as a minimum should be met by DCS system: Control Data Acquisition: Data acquisition is the process of retrieving
control information from the equipment which is out of order or may lead to some problem or when decisions are need to be taken according to the situation in the equipment. So this acquisition is done by continuous monitoring of the equipment to which it is employed.

Alarming:Alarm system can help minimize losses in several ways by:

1.Avoiding overloads in upsets 2.Decreasing trips 3.Decreasing losses in efficiency 4.Identifying areas for improvements in instrumentation,operations,and/or control Alarm is specifically designed to attract the operators attention during operation upset and allows operators a clear view of unit operating condition.

 Redundancy: Redundancy is an important requirement for any critical

process control application using DCS systems. These systems must have redundant communications, redundant data controllers, redundant i/o cards, and redundant communications. One advantage of redundancy is the ability to upgrade components online in the control system.

Historical data storage:Process history is important to operation

analysis, regulatory requirements, training, and root cause analysis. System Historical Services support the collection and storage of process history that includes process data,alarms or any control strategy along with its status.Events are collected in some cases down to a few millisecond resolution.

Reporting:Reporting is critical to operation, productivity, and regulatory

requirement. The Reporting function is provided through easily configurable report templates based on Microsoft Excel. Periodic reports can be configured to query real-time and historical data. Periodic reports can be set up for hourly, shift,monthly, etc.

 System diagnostics: Fault detection and diagnostics is central to

system stability and reliability. When a problem occurs in the system, the fault detection and diagnostic function of the can quickly analyze the cause of the failure by examining historical data and sequential event records and accordingly determine a response. Diagnostics cover the hardware,redundancy,communications,control and the software that makes up dcs.

System security:Secuity is essential in process control.The DCS system

must be able to limit the access to the various parts of control system to authorized people only.

Advantages of DCS
Access a large amount of current information from the data highway. Monitoring trends of past process conditions. It can be used for any no of loop counts and system performance doesnt degrade with increasing loop count. System wide global database and automatic documentation. Readily install new on-line measurements together with local computers. Digital DCS systems are more flexible. Control algorithms can be changed and control configuration can be modified without having rewiring the system. Redundancy is available at various levels. Information regarding the process is presented to the user in various formats. Field wiring is considerably less. Maintenance and trouble shooting becomes very easy. Cost effective in the long run.

Typical PLC-based System Architecture

Computer Control Networks

2.Programmable Logic Controller A digitally operating electronic system, designed for use in an industrial environment, which uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of user-oriented instructions for implementing specific functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic, to control, through digital or analogue inputs and outputs, various types of machines or processes. A programmable logic controller is therefore nothing more than a computer, tailored specifically for certain control tasks. Introduced in the late 1960s Developed to offer the same functionality as the existing relay logic systems Programmable, reusable and reliable Could withstand a harsh industrial environment They had no hard drive, they had battery backup Could start in seconds Used Ladder Logic for programming

PLC SYSTEM

Advantages of a PLC Control System

Eliminates much of the hard wiring that was associated with conventional relay control circuits. Increased Reliability: Once a program has been written and tested it can be downloaded to other. More Flexibility: Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) can provide system updates for a process by simply sending out a new program. Lower Costs: Originally PLCs were designed to replace relay control logic. The cost savings using PLCs have been so significant that relay control is becoming obsolete, except for power applications. Communications Capability: A PLC can communicate with other controllers or computer equipment. Faster Response Time: PLCs operate in real-time which means that an event taking place in the field will result in an operation or output taking place. Easier To Troubleshoot: PLCs have resident diagnostic and override functions allowing users to easily trace and correct software and hardware problems.

PLC WITH SCADA

The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and control entire sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large areas . Most control actions are performed automatically by PLCs. Host control functions are usually restricted to basic supervisory level intervention.

WHAT DOES SCADA MEAN?

1. SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition. As the name indicates, it is not a full control system, but rather focuses on the supervisory level. 2. As such, it is a purely software package that is positioned on top of hardware to which it is interfaced, in general via Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), or other commercial hardware modules. 3. SCADA systems are used not only in industrial processes: e.g. steel making, power generation (conventional and nuclear) and distribution, chemistry, but also in some experimental facilities such as nuclear fusion. Basic Components of SCADA: RTUs or PLCs Communication system Central host Computer or Master Station Operator Workstation

Typical SCADA System

Comparison of PLC/SCADA and DCS

1.SYSTEM DESIGN
PLC/ SCADA control engineers must map out system integration between HMI, alarming, controller communications and multiple controllers for every new project. Control addresses (tags) must be manually mapped in engineering documents to the rest of the system. As control logic is designed, alarming, HMI and system communications are automatically configured.

2.PROGRAMMING
PLC/ SCADA control logic, alarming, system communications and HMI are programmed independently. Control engineers are responsible for the integration/ linking of multiple databases to create the system. Redundancy is rarely used with PLCs. One reason is the difficulty in setting it up and managing meaningful redundancy for the application. When control logic is developed, HMI faceplates, alarms and system communications are automatically configured. Redundancy is set up in software quickly and easily, nearly with a click of a button.

Comparison of PLC/SCADA and DCS

3.COMMISSIONING AND START-UP
Testing a PLC/ HMI system is normally conducted on the job site after all of the wiring is complete. Off line simulation is possible, but this takes an extensive effort of programming to write code which will simulate the application you are controlling. Owing to the high cost and complex programming, this is rarely done. Process control systems come with the ability to automatically simulate the process based on the logic, HMI and alarms that are going to be used by the operator at the plant. This saves significant time onsite since the programming has already been tested before the wiring is begun.

4.TROUBLESHOOTING
PLCs have relatively little diagnostic status and may only be indicative. Limited use of diagnostic bits in logic. All key diagnostic bits reflecting system health status can participate in logics for proper safety actions.DCS diagnostics allow us to drill down all the way to the field instruments including HART & Fieldbus.

Comparison of PLC/SCADA and DCS

5.ABILITY TO CHANGE TO MEET PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
Changing the control logic to meet new application requirements is relatively easy. The challenge comes with additional requirements to integrate the new functionality to the operator stations. If you were to change an input point to a new address or tag, that change must be manually propagated throughout the system. Adding or changing logic in the system is also easy. When changes are made, the data entered into the control logic is automatically propagated to all aspects of the system.

6.OPERATOR TRAINING
With PLC/ SCADA operator training is the responsibility of the developer of the application. There is no operator training from the vendor Training for operators is available from the process control vendor. This is owing to the standardized way that information is presented to operators.

Comparison of PLC/SCADA and DCS

7.SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION
PLC/SCADA documentation is based on each part of the overall system. As each element is changed, documentation must be created to keep each document up to date. Again, this rarely happens, causing many issues with future changes and troubleshooting. As the control logic is changed, documentation for all aspects of the system is automatically created. This will directly minimize downtime recovery.

The divide between DCS and PLC/ SCADA approaches is wide, even though some commonality at the hardware level can be observed; the single database is at the heart of the DCS benefit and is a feature that holds its value throughout its life.

Basic Differences between DCS and SCADA

The goals of DCS and SCADA are quite different. It is possible for a single system to be capable of performing both DCS and SCADA functions, but few have been designed with this in mind, and therefore they usually fall short somewhere. 1. DCS is process oriented: it looks at the controlled process (the chemical plant or whatever) as the centre of the universe, and it presents data to operators as part of its job. SCADA is data-gathering oriented: the control centre and operators are the centre of its universe. The remote equipment is merely there to collect the data--though it may also do some very complex process control. 2. SCADA needs to get secure data and control over a potentially slow, unreliable communications medium, and needs to maintain a database of 'last known good values' for prompt operator display. It frequently needs to do event processing and data quality validationDCS is always connected to its data source, so it does not need to maintain a database of 'current values'. If you look at most customer's system requirements specifications, a careful analysis of the data collection and data quality requirements will indicate if SCADAstyle or DCS-style systems are appropriate. In general: the more features a system provides the more it will cost, so if you do not need SCADA-type data gathering facilities it will usually be more economical to use a DCS-type system.

Convergence of PLC and DCS system

Manufacturers that had been making relays for logic and interlock applications developed PLCs, while DCS systems were developed by process control manufacturers with substantial experience in PIDtype analog control.The capabilities of PLCs and DCSs have changed to the extent that today many applications that used to be the exclusive province of one or the other can be handled by both. The technology differences between PLCs and DCSs have evolved to be nonexistent 1. Today, any PLC can provide as much redundancy (processor, communication modules, power supply, communication bus, etc.) as a DCS. 2. PLCs provide all the function blocks for regulatory process control that a DCS does (say, 'P-I-D' blocks, setpoint tracking, auto-tuning, etc.). 3. system architectures look very similar and they are. Both systems share the following components: field devices, input/output (I/O) modules, controllers, human machine interfaces (HMIs), engineering, supervisory control, and business system integration Because PLCs and DCS are not that different from a technology point of view, we must look beyond technology to the application expertise and domain knowledge built in to these systems by suppliers.

Benefits of Selecting the "Right" Automation Technology

Selecting the right technology and the right supplier can help a company respond quickly to changing market conditions minimize Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) over the life of your plant create a system which is easily maintainable/upgradeable for the long-term achieve its future goals and vision

The Seven Questions to Ask Yourself Before Choosing a System

1. What are you manufacturing, and how? 2. What is the value of the product being manufactured? and the cost of downtime? 3. What do you view as the "heart" of the system? 4. What does the operator need to be successful? 5. What system performance is required? 6. What degree of customization is required? 7. What are your engineering expectations?

What are you manufacturing, and how?

Manufacturing or assembly of specific items. Product is visible as it moves through the process. Involves the combination and/or transformation of raw materials. Often impossible to visually see the product as it moves through the process. Regulatory/Analog (loop) control Complex Batch Control

High-speed logic control (such as motors) Simple Batch control

DCS

PLC

2. What is the value of the product being manufactured and the cost of downtime?
Value of the individual component being manufactured is relatively low. Downtime mainly results in lost production. The value of a batch can be very high. Downtime not only results in lost production, but can result in dangerous conditions.

PLC

Downtime does not typically damage Downtime can result in process the process equipment. equipment damage (product hardens, etc.)

Return to steady state production after an outage is short and relatively straightforward

Return to steady state production after an unplanned outage can be long, expensive, and difficult

DCS

3. What do you view as the "heart" of the system?

Typically, the Typically, the heart of the system heart of the is the controller. system is the HMI

PLC

DCS

4. What does the operator need to be successful?

The operator's primary role is to handle exceptions. The operators interaction is typically required to keep the process in its target performance range. Faceplates and analog trends are critical to see what is happening to the process. Alarm management is key to safe operation of the process and for responding effectively during plant upset conditions. Failure of the HMI could force the shutdown of the process

Status information (On/Off, Run/Stop) is critical for the operator.

PLC

Exception-based alarming is key information for the operator.

Manufacturing might be able to run "lights-out.

DCS

5. What system performance is required?

Fast logic scan (approx. 10ms) is required to perform motor or motion control. Redundancy may not be cost justified. Control loops require deterministic scan execution at a speed of 100 to 500 ms. System redundancy is often required.

System can be taken offline to make configuration changes.

Online configuration changes often required.

Analog Control: Simple to advanced PID control up to Advanced Process Control. Failure of the HMI could force the shutdown of the process

Analog Control: Simple PID only. Diagnostics to tell you when something is broken.

DCS

PLC

6. What degree of customization is required?

High level programming languages are available for creating custom logic. Custom logic created from existing function blocks.

Customized routines usually required . Many algorithms (i.e. PID) are complex and do not vary among applications.

Provisions must be available to integrate functions products into an integrated architecture.

Entire system is expected to

function as a complete solution.

DCS

PLC

Standard libraries considered nice features.

Standard application libraries are expected (function blocks and faceplates).

7. What are your engineering expectations?

Program/configure individual components, integrate later (bottomup). Desire customizable platforms to build upon. Up-front design of complete system before implementation begins (topdown). Looking for significant "out-of-thebox" functionality.

Solution is generic in nature, to be applied on a wide variety of applications. Use ladder logic to configure application.

Use function block diagram to configuration application.

DCS

System designed to be flexible.

PLC

System designed to make it "easy" to engineer process applications. Use of pre-defined, pre-tested functions saves time.