Energy for Sustainability

Randolph & Masters, 2008

Chapter 10:
Decentralized Energy Systems
Distributed generation technologies and electricity storage systems
can be owned and operated by customers or the utilities that serve them.
 100
Relative Carbon Emissions, compared to Coal

100
90 79
Relative Carbon Emissions (%)

80
70
60
50
34
40
23
30 19
20
10
0
AVERAGE BEST N. GAS N. GAS, CHP N. GAS CHP
AVERAGE
COAL
BEST
COAL
N.COMB-CYCLE
GAS CC N. GAS N. GAS
SIMPLE-CYCLE COMB-CYCLE
CC
COAL
33% eff COAL
42% eff 49% eff CHP
30% Elect eff CHP
41% Elect eff
49% Thermal eff 44% Thermal eff
 Demand Side Management
1. Conservation/energy efficiency programs that
have the effect of reducing consumption during
most or all hours of the day.
2. Load management programs that have the
effect of reducing peak demand through
conservation or by shifting the demand to non-
peak hours.
3. Fuel substitution programs that encourage a
customer to replace electricity with another
energy source. For example, replacing a
standard air conditioner with one based on
absorption cooling can shift the load from
electricity to natural gas.
Energy storage is an emerging load management strategy.
Storage can absorb power during periods of low demand
in order to provide it during peak periods.
45
Original load curve
Discharge storage
40
Charge storage
35
System load (GW)

30
Leveled load
25

20
Night time Daytime
15

10

0
0
MN 66 am 12
Noon 618pm 24
MN
A vanadium redox battery energy storage system seems well suited
to stationary applications such as power line voltage and power support
 A Duracell in the Desert: The Castle Valley VRB Project

Battery Energy Storage, Castle Valley, Utah Feeder power with and without battery storage
(www.vrbjpower.com)
 180
Battery Energy Density
180

160

140
Energy Density (Wh/kg)

120
90
100

80

60 45
35
40

20

0
Pb-acid NiCd NiMH Li-ion
Current lithium-ion batteries have energy densities a little below
200 Wh/kg, but future materials may make much higher
densities possible

e-
(-)
Cu contact
Li anode
Load Polymer electrolyte
LiMOX cathode
Cu contact
(+)

Anode (­):         Li  → Li+ + e−
Cathode (+):      Li+ +   e− + Lix CoO 2 →Li1+x CoO 2      current   <<  300 Wh / kg
                           Li+ + 2e− + Lix NiO 2 →Li1+x NiO 2         future?   <  540 Wh / kg
                           Li+ + 3e− + Lix CrO 3 →Li1+x CrO 3         future?    <  700 Wh / kg
Plug-In Hybrid Vehicle:
simply add an extra battery bank
Retrofit packages: Hymotion
 PHEV offer certain advantages
 With greater use of the electric drive, the vehicle
uses less gasoline and is more efficient than
conventional HEV on a mpg of gasoline basis.
Some PHEV Prius retrofits have achieved 100
mpg over 1000 miles of travel.
 With greater use of the electric drive in city
driving, the PHEV is a zero emission vehicle
(ZEV) that can reduce emissions and improve
urban air quality.
All Electric Vehicles
The Tesla Roadster
Electric Drive Vehicles:
Gas-equivalent “Price per Gallon” and CO2 Emissions

One-quarter the cost of gasoline

(at 10¢/kWh, $3/gal)

One-half the CO2 emissions as

gasoline
(at average U.S. electricity
sources: 52% coal)
Where do you get the electricity?

 Vehicles charged at night by grid power during

off-peak hours

 Plug-in Vehicles can enhance Distributed

Renewable Generation
 Your PV garage roof is your filling station
 Night-time demand provides a market for grid
wind power or other intermittent generation.
Typical electricity system load in California showing impacts of night charging
for electric vehicles with fraction of total vehicle miles provided by electricity
as a parameter. Based 3 miles/kWh and 280 billion vehicle-miles/yr.
45

40
40% vehicle-miles EV
System load (GW)

35
20% EV
30
No EVs
25

20

15
0
Noon 66 pm 12
MN 18am
6 24
Noon
The PV Garage could easily charge a vehicle
for 30-45 all-electric miles per day
A vehicle-to-grid system would require careful control and
accounting to manage large numbers of vehicles supplying
high-value, quick response grid services
Residential 120V/240V electrical system
Reading Your Electric Meter

kWh dials

Rotating
Disk

7.2 Wh/
Revolution
 Electricity Rates

Inverted
Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 3 Tier 4
kWh 0 - 255 256-331 332 - 510 > 510 kWh
¢/kWh 11.43 12.99 17.81 21.94

Time-of use rates

SUMMER: May - October WINTER: Nov - Apr
On Peak 2 - 8 pm 29.4 ¢/kWh 7-10 am, 5-8 pm 11.5 ¢/kWh
Off Peak All other times 8.7 ¢/kWh All other times 9.0 ¢/kwh

Demand Charges
General Medium Medium
Service Service Service
< 7500 kWh/mo > 7500 kWh/mo TOU Rate
Energy charge 6.56 ¢/kWh 2.60 ¢/kWh 2.32 ¢/kWh
Demand charge - $11.85 /mo-kW $13.20/mo-kW ON PEAK
$3.87/mo-kW OFF PEAK
 Net-metering for
Grid-Connected Systems
 “Bank” excess energy with the local utility
 Meter spins backward; customer receives full
retail value for each kWh produced
 Net excess
generation (NEG)
credited monthly
or annually
Synchronous
Inverter
 Utility
Utility

Sell Buy
Buy

Sell

Customer Customer
(a) Ratcheted meters (b) Net metering
• Ratcheted meters allow different prices for selling and buying electricity;
• with net metering a single meter runs in either direction
Cogeneration: aka Combined heat and power (CHP)
Micro- gas turbines with heat recovery
Basic
configuration
for a PEM
fuel cell
 Stationary Fuel Cell System
Clean exhaust Useful
heat
Natural
H2 DC AC
gas
Power Power
Fuel
Fuel Cell Power
Processor
Stack Conditioner
(reformer)
Steam

Air

A complete fuel cell system consists of a reformer to

produce hydrogen-rich fuel, the fuel cell stack itself, and
a power conditioner to convert dc to ac
One way to provide reliable electric power from a
renewable source such as wind or solar is
with a reversible fuel cell with hydrogen storage