Dr.

Siti Fazlili Abdullah

(office: BA-3-072)
siti@uniten.edu.my

You can upload your notes here:
http://moodle.uniten.edu.my/moodle/
course/category.php?id=133


Assignment
Topic 1: ENERGY BANDS AND CARRIER
CONCENTRATION
SUBTOPICS
1. Semiconductor Materials
2. Crystal structures
3. Quantum Mechanics
4. Energy Bands
5. Density of States
6. Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
7. Donors and Acceptors
1. Semiconductor Materials
Def: Semiconductors are a group of materials
having conductivities/resistivity between those
of metals and insulators.
Solid State Materials
As Electrical/Electronic Engineers, we are interested in
electrical/electronic of solid state materials.
Electrical/Electronic properties of solids are determined by:
Structural (crystal structure)
Physical (atomic properties, optical properties, etc.)
Chemical (composition of compounds)
Nature of materials as well as by
Environmental conditions (i.e. temperature, radiation, etc.)
Semiconductor Materials
High , conductivity/low
resistivity to current flow, I.
Metals
Very poor . Insulators
insulator << metal. Semiconductors
= (1/-cm)
]
Group

Period






















3
2
4
5
6
A portion of the periodic table showing
elements used in semiconductors materials
Compound Semiconductor
III-V
GaAs
AlAs
InP
II-VI
CdS
HgTe
CdTe
States of Matter
Matter in the universe exists in 3 basic
states: solid, liquid and gas. A fourth state is
plasma.

Properties of Materials
Material properties are the physical and
chemical characteristics that describe its
unique identity
3 types of solids, classified according to atomic
arrangement
(a) Amorphous (b) polycrystalline (c) Single crystal
2. Crystal Structures: Bravais Lattice

Collection of points that fill up space.
Lattice
Consists of one or more atoms.
Basis
A crystal is produced by attaching a
basis to every lattice point.
Crystal
LATTICE BASIS
Crystal
structure
Define 3 vectors: a
1
,a
2
& a
3
such that any
lattice point R

can be obtained from any
other lattice point R by a translation. m1-3
are integers.
Important
property
Crystal Structures: Bravais Lattice

R R m
1
a
1
m
2
a
2
m
3
a
3


If the volume formed by a
1
,a
2
& a
3
is the
smallest possible.



Primitive
translation
vectors
The basic building block of the crystal.
A unit cell is a small volume of the crystal
that can be used to reproduce the entire
crystal.
Unit cell
Primitive Cells

R R m
1
a
1
m
2
a
2
m
3
a
3

Cubic Lattices
Simple
Cubic
(sc)
Body-
centered
Cubic
(bcc)
Face-
centered
Cubic
(fcc)
Simple Cubic (SC)
Generated by primitive vectors:
a1 x, a2 , a3 z
x, , z = unit vectors
a = lattice constant of SC.
a1
a2
a3



Body- centered Cubic (bcc)
Generated from simple
cubic by placing an atom
at the center of cube.
a1
a2
a3
Face- centred Cubic (fcc)
Generated from simple
cubic by placing an atom
at the center of each
square face.
Additional: DIAMOND (Si & Ge) & ZINC BLENDE STRUCTURES (GaAs)
D
I
A
M
O
N
D

2 atoms on the
basis identical.
Si, Ge, C etc.
Elemental SC
Z
I
N
C

B
L
E
N
D
E

Atoms on basis
different.
GaAs, AlAs,
CdS etc.
Compound SC.
(a) fcc: 8 corner atoms 1/8 = 1 atom
6 face atoms = 3 atoms
Total of 4 atoms per unit cell

(b) bcc: 8 corner atoms 1/8 = 1 atom
1 enclosed atom = 1 atom
Total of 2 atoms per unit cell

(c) Diamond (Si): 8 corner atoms 1/8 = 1 atom
6 face atoms = 3 atoms
4 enclosed atoms = 4 atoms
Total of 8 atoms per unit cell *
1. Determine the number of atoms per unit cell in
(a)face-centered cubic
(b)body-centered cubic
(c)diamond lattice
Example 1
A body-centered
cubic (bcc)
lattice has two
pattern per unit
cell: the patterns
at each vertex
are shared
between 8
neighbouring
cells
1. The lattice constant of GaAs is, a
0
= 5.65. Determine the number of Ga
(fcc) atoms and As (fcc) atoms per cm
3
.
Example 2
4 Ga atoms per unit cell, density = 4 2.22 x 10
22
atoms/cm
3
(5.65 x 10
-8
)
3

4 As atoms per unit cell, density = 4 2.22 x 10
22
atoms/cm
3
(5.65 x 10
-8
)
3

2. Determine the volume density of germanium atoms in a germanium (diamond)
semiconductor. The lattice constant of germanium is 5.65

8 Ge atoms per unit cell, density = 8 4.44 x 10
22
atoms/cm
3
(5.65 x 10
-8
)
3




3.
Nsi = (5x10
22
atoms/cm
3
)*({10}x{10
-12
cm
3
})
= 5x10
11
atoms
NGa = NAs = (2.22x10
22
atoms/cm
3
)*({10
4
}x{10
-12
cm
3
})
= 2.22x10
14
atoms
* info. fr. example 2 (no.3 & 1)

Example
In semiconductor technology, an Si device on a VLSI chip is
one the smallest devices while a GaAs laser is one of the
larger devices. Consider a Si device with dimensions
(5x2x1)m
3
and a GaAs semiconductor laser with
dimensions (200x10x5)m
3
. Calculate the number of atoms
in each device.
In the (001) surfaces, the top atoms are either Ga or As, leading to
the terminology Ga-terminated (or Ga-stabilized) and As-
terminated (or As-stabilized), respectively. A square of area a
2
has
four atoms on the edges of the square and one atom at the center of
the square. The atoms on the square edges are shared by a total of
four squares. The total number of atoms per square is
N (a
2
) = 4/4 + 1 = 2
The surface density = = 2/ a
2
= 2/ (5.65 x 10
-8
)
2
= 6.26x10
14
cm
-2


Example
a)Calculate the surface density of Ga atoms on a Ga-
terminated (001) GaAs surface.
Note: APF = atomic packing fraction (APF) Final Sem 3 11/12

In crystallography, atomic packing factor (APF) or packing fraction is the
fraction of volume in a crystal structure that is occupied by atoms. It is dimensionless and
always less than unity. For practical purposes, the APF of a crystal structure is determined
by assuming that atoms are rigid spheres. The radius of the spheres is taken to be the
maximal value such that the atoms do not overlap.

1.Fcc/hcp (hexagonal close-packed)
Example: fcc lattice of identical atoms with a lattice constant, a of 8 x 10
-8
cm,
calculate the maximum atomic packing fraction (APF) and the radius of the atoms
treated as hard spheres with the nearest neighbours touching.
Method 1
r = [(a/2)
2
+(a/2)
2
]/2
= (a
2
/4+a
2
/4)/2 = 2(a/4)
= 2(8x10
-8
cm)/4 = 2.83x10
-8
cm
no. of atoms for fcc = 6 x + 8 x 1/8
3+1 = 4 atoms
Hence APF = 4 x 4/3 r
3
/a
3

= 4 x 4/3 (2.83x10
-8
cm)
3
/(8x10
-8
cm)
3

= 0.74

2. Bcc (APF = 0.68)

3. Sc (APF = 0.52)
( ) ( )
( )
3 3 3
3 3
2
4 2( )
2 4
4 2
4 4
4 4
2
3 3
0.74
(3)(4)
4
2
r a
r a fcc
a r
r or a
r r
PF
a
r
t t
t
=
=
= =
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .
= = = =
| |
|
\ .
Method 2
a
a
a2
Miller Indices
In a cubic system, Miller indices of a plane are the same
as the direction perpendicular to the plane.
Example
Calculate the surface density of atoms on a particular plane in a crystal. Consider the
fcc structure and the (110) plane shown. Assume the atoms can be represented as
hard spheres with the closest atoms touching each other and that the lattice
constant is a
0
= 4.5 = 4.5 x 10
-8
cm.

= 2 atoms/[(a
0
) (a
0
2)] = 2/ [(4.5 x 10
-8
)
2
(2)]
= 6.98 x 10
14
atoms/cm
2
Example
Calculate the surface density of atoms on a particular plane in a crystal. Consider the bcc
structure plane of (100) and (110). Assume the atoms can be represented as hard spheres
with the closest atoms touching each other and that the lattice constant is a
0
= 4.75 =
4.75 x 10
-8
cm.

Ans: (a) 4.43 x 10
14
cm
-2
, (b) 6.27 x 10
14
cm
-2


Example
Consider the (100), (110) and (111) planes in Si.
a) Which plane has the highest surface density of atoms?
b) What is that density?
c) Which plane has the smallest surface density of atoms?
d) What is that density?
(100) plane: Density =No atoms/ a
0
2
= 2/(5.43 x10
-8
)
2
= 6.78 x10
14
cm
-2

(110) plane: Density = No atoms/ [a
0
2
2)]= 4/[(5.43 x10
-8
)
2
2 ]= 9.59 x10
14
cm
-2


(111) plane: Density = No atoms/ [a
0
2
(3/2)]=
[(1/6) 3 + (1/2) 3] / [(5.43 x10
-8
)
2
(3/2) ]= 7.83 x10
14
cm
-2


(a), (b) highest surface density: (110) plane and 9.59 x10
14
cm
-2

(c), (d) lowest surface density: (100) plane and 6.78 x10
14
cm
-2

1. Miller Indices is a set of parallel planes in a crystal by three numbers (h k l).
These lattice planes can be chosen in different ways in a crystal.

2. Planes:
-The crystal may be regarded as made up of an aggregate of a set of parallel equidistant
planes, passing through the lattice points which are known as Lattice planes.

3. Steps to determine miller Indices of given set of parallel planes.
Miller indices may be defined as the reciprocals of the intercepts made by the plane on
the crystallographic axes when reduced to smallest numbers.

Consider a plane ABC which is one of the planes belonging to the set of parallel planes
with miller indices (h k l).

Let x, y and z be the intercepts made by the plane along the three crystallographic axes
X, Y and Z respectively.

a)Determine the coordinates of the intercepts made by the plane along the three
crystallographic axes.
b) Express the intercepts as multiples of the unit cell dimensions, or lattice parameters
along the axes
c) Determine the reciprocals of these numbers
d) Reduce them into the smallest set of integral numbers and enclose them in simple
brackets. (No commas to be placed between indices)
Miller Indices
Direction OA = [2 2]
Direction OB = [3 1]
Direction OA = [0 1 1]
Direction OB = [1 1 0]
Different Lattice Planes
O
A
B
A
B
O
x
y
z
Miller Indices
1.
Find the intercepts of the plane on the 3 Cartesian
coordinates in terms of the lattice constant.
2.
Take the reciprocals of these numbers and reduce
them to the smallest 3 integers having the same ratio.
3.
Enclose the result in parentheses (hkl) as the Miller
indices for a single plane.
The indices can be obtained via 3 steps:
Exercise 2: If a plane has intercepts at 2a, 3a and 4a along the
3 Cartesian coordinates, where a is the lattice constant, find
the Miller indices of the planes.
1.
Find the intercepts of the plan on the 3 Cartesian coordinates in
terms of the lattice constant: 2a, 3a and 4a
2.
Take the reciprocals of these numbers and reduce them to the
smallest 3 integers having the same ratio.

3.
Enclose the result in parentheses (hkl) as the Miller indices for a
single plane: The plane is referred to as (643) plane.
( )
1 1 1
, , 12 6, 4, 3
2 3 4
| |
=
|
\ .
Test question:
Using the established steps to obtain the Miller index for a plane in a
semiconductor cubic crystal, draw the corresponding plane designed by
(123). (5 marks)
Step 1: Take Miller indexes (123)
Step 2: Invert (123) ->
Step 3: Multiply by 6 -> (632)
Step 4: Multiply by a, lattice constant (6a, 3a, 2a)

1 1 1
1 2 3
| |
|
\ .
6a
Example 1
Describe this lattice direction (Fig. 1) and the corresponding lattice plane that is perpendicular ( ) to
this direction.

Ans:
The corresponding vector: p = 2, q = 4 and s = 1 or [241] direction or (241) plane. \


The intercepts of the plane are then found by taking the reciprocal of (241) and
multiplying by the least common denominator.
(1/2, 1/4, 1/1) X 4 (2, 1, 4)
or p = 2, q = 1 and s = 4 or [214] direction or (214) plane.
This plane is to the corresponding plane (Fig 2).
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
}\
Example 2
Describe this lattice direction (Fig. 1) and the corresponding lattice plane that is
perpendicular () to this direction.

Ans: p = 1, q = 1 and s = 3 or [113] direction or (113) plane.

Corresponding: p = 3, q = 3 and s = 1 or [331] direction or (331) plane.
Fig. 1
Example 3
Consider a 3D cubic lattice with a lattice constant = a
0

a)Find the value of the corresponding p, q and s in the following planes.
(i) (100) Ans: p = 1, q = , s =
(ii) (130) Ans: p = 3, q = 1, s =
(iii) (203) Ans: p = 3, q = , s = 2

b)Find the value of p, q and s in the following directions.
(i) [110] Ans: p = 1, q = 1, s = 0
(ii) [311] Ans: p = 3, q = 1, s = 1
(iii) [123] Ans: p = 1, q = 2, s = 3

c)Determine the Miller indices for the plane in Fig.1.
Fig. 1
1 , 1 , 1
1 3 1
( )
(313)
(a)
(b)
1 , 1 , 1
4 2 4
( )
(121)
1 1 1
2 3 2
| |
|
\ .
Draw the crystal plane for the Miller indices (232). [3 marks]

Step 1: Invert (232) -> and multiply by 6 -> (323)


Step 2: Multiply by a, lattice constant (3a, 2a, 3a)
Final : Sem 2 08/09
3a
2a
3a
2 useful relationships in Miller indices
(cubic crystal)

a) d = distance between 2 adjacent planes labeled (hkl):
d = a / (h
2
+ k
2
+
2
)


b) The angle between directions [h
1
k
1

1
] and [h
2
k
2

2
] is given by:

Cos () = (h
1
h
2
+ k
1
k
2
+
1

2
)

[(h
1
2
+ k
1
2
+
1
2
) (h
2
2
+ k
2
2
+
2
2
) ]


Fig. 1 shows direction of the plane (111). What are the
other 4 possibilities of the direction of this plane.
[4 marks]
Fig.1
Y
Z
X
Solutions



Final :Sem 1 09/10
Fig. 1
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
(
(

(

(

(

(

(

(

| |
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
:
3
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
. 111 , ,
3 3 3 3
a
note d
h k l
= = =
+ + + +
(
=
(

Test 1 :Sem 1 09/10
1 1
, , 0
2 2
1 1
, , 0
2 2
1 1
, , 0
2 2
1 1
, , 0
2 2
(
(

(

(

(

(

(

(

Fig.1

What are the other 4 possibilities of the direction of the plane (110) as shown
in Fig. 1. [4 marks]


Example
The lattice constant of a sc cell is a
0
= 5.25 x 10
-8
cm. Calculate the distance
between the nearest parallel (//)

(a) (100) plane. Ans: d = D = a
0
= 5.25 x 10
-8
cm

(b) (110) plane. Ans: d = (a
0
2)/2 *= 3.71 x 10
-8
cm

(a) (111) plane. Ans: d = (a
0
3)/3 = 3.03 x 10
-8
cm




d
d
a
0
a
0
a
0
2

*
d
ELECTRONS IN A (SOLID) CRYSTAL

3. Quantum Mechanics
De Broglies Hypothesis
A particle was given a wave character by assigning a
wavelength to it.


Where p is the particle momentum.
When the wavelength of a particle is small compared to the
distance potential energy changes, classical concepts are quite
valid.
When the potential energy changes over distances are
comparable or smaller than the , use Quantum Mechanics.
h
p
=
3. Quantum Mechanics of Free
Particle
Pronounce sai (Psi)
Shrdinger Equation
ELECTRONS IN AN ATOM
4
o
2 2 2 2
o
o
o
-m q -13.6
E= = eV
8 h n n
where
m =free-electron mass
q=electron charge
=free-electron mass
h = Planck constant
n = pricipal quantum number
(The lowest energy state=ground state (n=1))
4. ENERGY BANDS
FILLING OF ENERGY BANDS: FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION
The distribution fn, f(E) means the probability that an allowed level at energy, E is
occupied, where the most one electron can occupy an allowed state (this principle is
called the Pauli Exclusion Principle).
E
F
=Fermi Energy
= f(E)

METALS, INSULATORS, AND SEMICONDUCTORS

Metal
Insulator/Semiconductor
Highest occupied band is
partially filled
Highest occupied band is
completely filled at T = 0
Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Ev
Ec
EC
Ev
O
v
e
r
l
a
p

Electrons in a Semiconductor








Ec
Ev
Bond Model
(a) 2D representation of the
covalent bond in a single-
crystal Si lattice at T = 0 K,
surrounded by 8 valence
electrons.
(b) 2D representation of the
breaking of a covalent bond as
the temp. increases above 0 K, a
few valence band e
-
may gain
enough thermal or optical
energy to break the covalent
bond and jump into the
conduction band.
(a) (b)
(c)
(c) Simple line representation of the energy-band
model showing the same bond-breaking effect.
1. To determine the current-voltage characteristics of
semiconductor devices.

2. Current = Result of the flow of charge.

3. Charge Carriers = charges in a semiconductor that
can move when forces are applied.
a)Electron = negative charge particle
(interested in e
-
at the bottom of a conduction band)
dE = F dx = F v dt
(E = increasing energy, F = applied force, x = distance, v = velocity, t = time)

b)Hole = positive charge particle
5. Density of States (N (E))
Electrons and holes
Characteristics of Semiconductor Materials
Effective mass
m
0
= effective mass
(particle mass + mass
effect of the internal
forces)


The k-Space Diagram
Shows the E (energy) vs k (crystal momentum parameter)
2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
V( )
2
V ( ) ( )
2
o
r E
m
r E r
m x y z


(
V + =
(

(
| |
c c c
+ + + =
( |
c c c
\ .

The energy of an electron in a uniform potential Vo:
2 2
V
o
o
k
E
m
= +
34
6.626 10
1.055
2 2
h Js
where Js
t t

= = =
Dispersion relation energymomentum/ E-k relation for electrons
Shrdinger Equation
The parabolic E vs k curve for a free electron
2 2
V
o
o
k
E
m
= +
E =p
2
/2m
Direct and Indirect Semiconductors
Direct bandgap semiconductor = The band structure of some semiconductors that has a minimum
in the conduction band and a maximum in the valence band for the same k value (k = 0) (e.g.
GaAs).
Indirect bandgap semiconductor = The band structure of some semiconductors that have its
valence band maximum at a different value of k than its conduction band minimum (e.g. Si).
Thus an electron making a smallest-energy transition from the conduction band to the valence band
in GaAs can do so without a change in k value; on the other hand, a transition from the minimum
point in the Si conduction band to the maximum point of the valence band requires some change in
k.
An indirect transition, involving a change in k, requires a change of momentum for the electron.
(a) direct transition with
accompanying photon
emission; (i.e: GaAs)
(b) indirect transition via a
defect level. (i.e: Si)
What is the meaning of direct and in-direct semiconductor?
[4 marks]
Final :Sem 1 09/10
k = 0

Direct Semiconductor

In-Direct Semiconductor
p 0
E
C
min
k 0
p = 0
E
V
max

k = crystal momentum
parameter
p = momentum of the
electron
E
C
min = Min. value in
conduction band
E
V
max = Max. value
in valence band

BANDSTRUCTURE NEAR BANDEDGES
Behavior of most electrons near the band edges
determines most device properties. Near the
band edges, the electrons can be described by
simple effective mass pictures, i.e. the electrons
behave as if they are in free space except their
masses are m*.
(Right) Schematic of the valence band, direct
band gap, and indirect band gap conduction
bands. The conduction band of the direct gap
semiconductor is shown in the solid line, while
the conduction band of the indirect
semiconductor is shown in the dashed line.
The curves I & II in the valence band are called
heavy hole and light hole respectively.
Direct band gap: GaAs, InP, InGaAs etc.
Indirect band gap: Si, Ge, AlAs etc

BANDSTRUCTURE: SILICON
BANDSTRUCTURE: GaAs
The bandgap at 0 K is 1.51 eV and at 300 K it is 1.43 eV. The bottom
of the conduction band is at k = (0,0,0), i.e., the G-point. The upper
conduction band valleys are at the L-point.
(a) Band structure of Ge.
(b) Band structure of AlAs.
(c) Band structure of InAs.
(d) Band structure of InP.

InP is a very important material for
high speed devices as well as a
substrate and barrier layer
material for semiconductor lasers.
2 2
*
( )
2
c
k
E k E
m
= +
For conduction band with k=0,
m
0
= m* is the effective mass.
The electron responds to the
external force as if It has this mass.
2 2
*
( )
2
v
hh
k
E k E
m
=
For valence band,
Heavy hole band:
2 2
*
( )
2
v
lh
k
E k E
m
= Light hole band:
3/ 2 1/ 2
2 3
2 * ( )
( ) ;
C
C
m E E
N E E E
t

= >
* 2/ 3 * *2 1/ 3
6 ( )
dos l t
m m m ( =

3/ 2 1/ 2
2 3
2 * ( )
( ) ;
v
v
m E E
N E E E
t

= s
* 3/ 2 *3/ 2 *3/ 2
dos hh lh
m m m ( = +

*3/ 2 1/ 2 *3/ 2 1/ 2
2 3 2 3
*3/ 2 1/ 2
2 3
2 ( ) 2 ( )
( )
2 ( )
( )
hh v lh v
dos v
m E E m E E
N E
m E E
N E
t t
t

= +

=
For Si:
ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF SOME SEMICONDUCTORS
Note: D and I stand for direct and indirect gap, respectively. The data are at 300 K.
HOLES IN SEMICONDUCTORS: WHAT ARE HOLES?
In a filled band (valence band) no current can flow. The electrons can move if
there is an empty state available. The empty states in the valence band are called
holes.

Diagram illustrating the wavevector of the missing electron ke. The
wavevector of the system with the missing electron is ke, which is
associated with the hole.
0
i e
i i e
k k
k k k
=
E = = +

When all the valence band states are occupied, the

sum over all wavevector states is zero, i.e.
When the electron at wavevector ke is missing,
The total wavevector is
i e
i e
k k
k k
=
=

HOLES IN SEMICONDUCTORS: HOW DO HOLES MOVE?

The movement of an empty electron state, i,e,. a hole under an electric field.
The electrons move in the direction opposite to the electric field so that the
hole moves in the direction of the electric field thus behaving as if it were
positively charged, as shown in (a), (b), and (c). (d) The velocities and
currents due to electrons and holes. The current flow is in the same direction
(j
e
& j
h
), even though the electron and holes have opposite velocities. The
electron effective mass in the valence band is negative, but the hole behaves
as if it has a positive mass.

6. FREE CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS: INTRINSIC CARRIERS
Total mobile carrier density = n + p


FREE CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS: INTRINSIC CARRIERS
(a) A schematic showing allowed energy bands in electrons in a metal. The electrons
occupying the highest partially occupied band are capable of carrying current.
(b) A schematic showing the valence band and conduction band in a typical semiconductor.
In semiconductors only electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band
can carry current.
FREE CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS: INTRINSIC CARRIERS
np is independent of the position of the Fermi level and is dependent only on the temperature and intrinsic
properties of the semiconductor. This observation is called the Law of mass action: a general description of
the equilibrium condition; it defines the equilibrium constant expression. If n increases, p must decrease and
vice versa. For intrinsic, n=ni =p=pi,
3
* * 3/ 2
2
4 ( ) exp( / )
2
B
e h g B
k T
np m m E k T
t
| |
=
|
\ .
In intrinsic semiconductors, the electron concentration is equal to the hole concentration since each electron
in the conduction band leaves a hole in the valence band.
* *
3
ln( / )
2 4
C v
Fi B h e
E E
E k T m m
+
= +
Take the square root of
the equatn ***
***
Effective densities and intrinsic carrier concentrations of
Si, Ge and GaAs. The numbers for intrinsic carrier
densities are the accepted values even though they are
smaller than the values obtained by using the equations
derived in the text.
7. DOPING OF SEMICONDUCTORS: DONORS AND ACCEPTORS (EXTRINSIC CARRIERS)
DOPING OF SEMICONDUCTORS: DONORS AND ACCEPTORS
DOPING OF SEMICONDUCTORS: DONORS AND ACCEPTORS
(a) The energy-band diagram showing
the discrete donor energy states
(T = 0 K)
(b) The energy-band diagram showing
the effect of some donor states being
ionized creating free electrons (T > 0 K)
(b) The energy-band diagram showing
the effect of some acceptor states being
ionized creating free holes (T > 0 K)
(a) The energy-band diagram showing
the discrete acceptor energy states
(T = 0 K)
Schematic energy band representation of extrinsic
semiconductors with:
(a) donor ions and (b) acceptor ions.
FREE CARRIERS IN DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS
If electron (hole) density is measured as a function of
temperature in a doped S/C, one observes three regimes:
Electron density as a function of temperature for a Si sample with donor impurity concentration
of 10
15
cm
3
. It is preferable to operate devices in the saturation region where the free carrier
density is approximately equal to the dopant density.
It is not possible to operate devices in the intrinsic
regime, since the devices always have a high
carrier density that cannot be controlled by E.
Every semiconductor has an upper T beyond
which it cannot be used in devices.
The larger the bandgap, the higher the upper limit.
Recall: 1.3: Quantum Mechanics
a) Electrons in Free Space
Electrons inside semiconductor can be regarded as free electrons under proper
conditions, uniform potential, V
0
.







Energy of the electron:

E =
2
k
2
/2m
0
+V
0

= p*
2
/2m
0
+V
0
*p = momentum


Energy-momentum or E-k or dispersion relation
(Means, the allowed energies for the free e
-
from continuous band)



Shrdinger Equation:
1.5 Density of States (density of allowed solutions) = N (E)
(is the number of available electronic states per unit volume per unit energy around an
energy E)

&















N (E) = 2 m
0
3/2
(E V
0
)

t
2

3

1. E vs k (k is the momentum)
2. N (E) vs E
compulsory E =
2
k
2
/2m
0
*+V
0

Example 1
The free electrons moving in the constant background potential of 2.0 eV.
a) Find the N(E).
b) Plot and describe the N(E) vs E diagram.
c) Plot the N(E) for electrons that have E-k relation.

a)





N (E) = 2 m
0
3/2
(E V
0
)

t
2

3

3/ 2 1/ 2 30 3/ 2 1/ 2
0 0 0
2 3 2 34 3
56 1/ 2 1 3
0
1 1/ 2
19 19 3
56 1/ 2
0
1 3 6 3
21
2( ) ( ) 2(0.91 10 ) ( )
) ( )
(1.05 10 )
1.07 10 ( ) .
1 1.6 10 1.6 10 1
1.07 10 ( )
. 1.0 1.0 10
6.8 10 (
m E V kg E V
i N E
Js
E V J m
J J m
E V
J m eV eV cm
E
t t

= =

=
| | | | | |
=
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
=
1/ 2 1 3
0
21 1/ 2 1 3
) .
6.8 10 ( 2)) .
V eV cm
E eV cm


=
N (E) vs E
N(E) (eV
-1
.cm
-3
) x 10
21

E (eV)
0.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0
4.0 2.0
N(E) = 0 when E < 2.0
C) Plot the N(E) for electrons that have E-k relation.

E =
2
k
2
/2m
0
+ 2.0 eV










note: N(E) = 6.8 x 10
21
(E - 2.0

)

eV
-1
. cm
-3
, E > 2.0 eV

E (eV)
E =
2
k
2
/2m
0

k
Background
potential = V
0

= 2.0 eV
Example 2
Calculate the N(E) for a particle that has an E-k relation given by
E = -
2
k
2
/2m
0
with zero potential
Ans:
In this problem the allowed energies are present only for E < 0. For E > 0 no
energies are allowed because the negative sign. The N(E) is









N (E) = 2 m
0
3/2
(-E )

, E < 0

t
2

3

Example 3
Calculate the N(E) at 0.1 eV electrons having a dispersion relation
with zero potential.

E =
2
k
2
/2m

* ; m

* = 0.1 m
0


Ans: (fr. Example 1)



N(E) = 6.8 x 10
21
x (0.1 )
3/2
(0.1)

= 6.8 x 10
19
eV
-1
. cm
-3


N (E) = 2 m
0
3/2
(E V
0
)

t
2

3

Example 4
In a particular periodic potential electrons are found to have potential background of
-5 eV, given the dispersion relation of;

E =
2
k
2
/2m

* + (- 5.0) eV ; m

* = 0.1 m
0

(note: the normal one is E =
2
k
2
/2m

* + 5.0 eV,


Plot the N(E) vs E graph for the electrons between -6.0 eV and -8.0 eV

Ans: Refer example 1





N(E) = 6.8 x 10
21
eV
-1
. cm
-3
(E - (- 5)

)

eV
-1
. cm
-3
N(E) = 6.8 x 10
21
eV
-1
. cm
-3
(E + 5)

)

eV
-1
. cm
-3

(Means: E > - 5.0 eV = -4, -3, -2,)

Conclusion: There are no allowed states. Cant plot N(E) vs E graph
N (E) = 2 m
0
3/2
((E V
0
)

)

t
2

3

Example 5 (JFYI)
Calculate the N(E) per unit volume with energies between 0 to 1.0 eV. The
N(E) per unit volume for free electron is given by



Ans:

n = } N(E) dE

n = } 4 t (2m
0
)
3/2
(E )

dE

h
3
n = 4 t (2 x 9.1 x 10
-31
)
3/2
2/3 E

(6.625 x 10
-34
)
3

n = 1.06 x 10
-56
. 2/3 (1 0) eV. x 1.60 x 10
-19
J

n = 4.52 x 10
27
m
-3



N (E) = 4 t (2m
0
)
3/2
(E )

h
3
1
0
(

)

(

)

1
0
3/2
1
0
(

)

[

]

[
1.0 eV
]

3/2
Example 7
(Continue from example 3)
Plot the N(E) for electrons that have E-k relation, given by

a) E = -
2
k
2
/2m
0
with zero potential
b) E =
2
k
2
/2m

* + (- 5.0) eV


E (eV)
E = -
2
k
2
/2m
0

k
(a)
E (eV)
k
- 5.0 eV
(b)
E =
2
k
2
/2m
0

b) Electrons in an Atom
Free States : These states represent solutions where electron is
not confined near the atom and has so much kinetic energy that
the attractive potential of the atom cannot hold it. All energies are
allowed in this regime.

Bound states : These are of greatest interest in atomic physics.
Not all energies are allowed for the bound states, where the
electron wavefunction is confined to ~ 1 around the nucleus.
Only certain discrete energies are allowed. The allowed energies
are separated by regions that are forbidden for the electron.

E
n
= - m
0
e
4
= -13.6 / n
2
(eV)


Where, n = 1, 2, 3


2(4tc
0
)
2

2
n
2

c) Electrons in Crystalline Solids: Energy Bands

Within each allowed band the electron behaves as it were in free
space, except it responds as it had a different mass known as
effective mass, m*.
How do the electrons distribute themselves among the various
allowed electronic states?
Electrons have the property that at the most one electron can
occupy an allowed states (Pauli exclusion principle) The
distribution function, f (E) = Fermi-Dirac distribution function =








For the case when (E E
F
>> k
B
T)
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
T k
E E
E f
B
f
exp
Maxwell Boltzmann distribution
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
T k
E E
E f
B
F
exp 1
1
The electron density
or carrier density,
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
T k
E E
N n
B
f
c
0
exp
Where N
C
= effective density of states
E
0
= the initial energy band/bandedge
N
C
= 2 (m
0
/(2 t
2
))
3/2
(k
B
T)
3/2

Fermi Energy (E
F
) (for semiconductor and T > 0)

1.Boltzmann approximation

E
F
- E
0
= k
B
T ln (n / N
c
)
2.Joyce-Dixon approximation

E
F
- E
0
= k
B
T [ln (n / N
c
) + (1/8) (n / N
c
)]

3. E
F
- E
0
= (
2
/2 m
0
) (3t
2
n)
2/3
(T = 0 K)
Example 1

Calculate the fermi level (E
F
) at 77 K and 300 K for a case where the
electron density, n is 10
19
cm
-3
. Use the Boltzmann and the Joyce-Dixon
approximation. Assume E
0
= Initial Energy = 0

Ans:
N
c
(300 K) = 2 (m
0
/(2 t
2
))
3/2
(k
B
T)
3/2

= 2 (0.91 x 10
-30
kg / (2 t (1.05 x 10
-34
Js)
2
)
3/2


. [(1.380 x 10
-23
J/K) x (300K)]
3/2


= (9.522 x 10
55
) . (2.66 x 10
-31
) = 2.53 x 10
25
m
-3


N
c
(77 K) = 2.53 x 10
25
cm
-3
x 77
3/2
300
= 3.3 x 10
24
cm
-3
(

)
At 77 K, E
F
(k
B
T = 0.0067eV = [(1.380 x 10
-23
J/K) (77K) x (1 eV/(1.6 x 10
-19
J))]

E
F
(Boltzmann) = 0.0067 ln 10
19
= -85 meV



E
F
(Joyce-Dixon) = 0.0067 ln 10
19
+ 10
19
8( = -85 meV

At 300 K, E
F
(k
B
T = 0.026eV)

E
F
(Boltzmann) = 0.026 ln 10
19
= - 383 meV



E
F
(Joyce-Dixon) = 0.026 ln 10
19
+ 10
19
8( ) = -383 meV

3.3 x 10
24
]

[

)
[

)
2.53 x 10
25
]

3.3 x 10
24
)

[

2.53 x 10
25
)
3.3 x 10
24
)
]

[

]

2.53 x 10
25
Example 2
If the mass of the electron in the example 1 changes to 0.1 m
0
, calculate the
N
c
.

Ans:
N
c
(300 K) =

2.53 x 10
19
(m*

/ m
0
)
3/2
= 8.00 x 10
17
cm
-3



N
c
(77 K) = 3.3 x 10
18
(m*

/ m
0
)
3/2
= 1.04 x 10
17
cm
-3

note: m*= 0.1m
0

Example 3
In GaAs, electrons behave as if mass is m* = 0.067 m
0
. If 10
18
electrons per
cm
3
are placed in the conduction band of GaAs, what is the position of Fermi
level at 0 K? Using the Joyce-Dixon approximation, calculate the position of
the Fermi level at 300 K.

Ans:
The position of the Fermi level at 0 K is given in terms of the carrier density
by
E
F
= E
0
+ (
2
/2 m*

) (3t
2
n)
2/3


=(1.05 x 10
-34
Js)
2
x {3 x t
2
(10
24
m
-3
)}
2/3
2(0.067 x 0.91 x 10
-30
kg)

= 8.3 x 10
-21
J = 5.18 x 10
-2
eV

Using the Joyce-Dixon approximation with
N
C
= 4.45 x 10
17
cm
-3
(from the table)


We find E
F
(300K) = 0.04 meV

Recall on the semiconductor:

1. At 0 K, the valence band is completely occupied (ie, filled with electron),
while the conduction band is completely empty. How does the current
flow in semiconductor?

2.Every semiconductor has its own unique bandstructure (bandedge). (We
only interested in what E-k relation is near the top of the valence band
and near the bottom of the conduction band.

3. For conduction bandedge is at k= 0

E (k) = E
C
+ (
2
k
2
/2 m*

)

Where
E
C
= the conduction bandedge
m* = effective mass

4. For valence band

a) Heavy hole band E = E
v
(
2
k
2
/2 m
hh
*

)

b) Light hole band E = E
v
(
2
k
2
/2 m
lh
*

)
Example 4

Find the k-value for an electron in the conduction band of GaAs having an
energy of 0.1 eV (measured from bandedge). The m* of electrons in GaAs is
0.067 m
0
.


E (k) = E
C
+ (
2
k
2
/2 m*

)


k = (2m* E) /


k = {2 (0.067 x 9.1 x 10
-31
kg) (0.1 x 1.6 x 10
-19
J)}
1/2
= 4.2 x 10
8
m
-1
1.05 x 10
-34
Js






Fermi Energy (E
F
)

1. Boltzmann approximation

E
F
= k
B
T ln (n / N
c
)


2. Joyce-Dixon approximation

E
F
= E
0
+ k
B
T [ln (n / N
c
) + (1/8) (n / N
c
)]

3. E
F
= E
0
+ (
2
/2 m
0
) (3t
2
n)
2/3

(for metal and T = 0 K)

4.The Donor Energy

E
d
= Ec - (e
4
/ m*
e
) / { 2(4tc)
2

2
} =

Where,

N
c
= effective density of
states
= 2 (m
0
/(2 t
2
))
3/2
(k
B
T)
3/2

n = electron density
= (carrier density)
= N
c
exp (E
F
E
0
)/ (k
B
T)

Example 6

A donor atom (i.e indirect gap materials like Si)
in a semiconductor has a donor energy of
0.045 eV below the conduction band.
Assuming the simple hydrogenic model for
donors, estimate the conduction bandedge
mass. (Given: static dielectric constant for
Si c
Si
= c
S
= 11.9 c
0
)

Ans:

E
d
=

E
d
E
c
= = - 0.045


= 0.045 (11.9 c
0
/ c
0
)
2
= 0.47
13.6

E
d
E
c

Example 7

Calculate the donor level energy (gap) for InAs
Given: static dielectric constant for InAs
= c
InAs
= c
S
= 15.15 c
0

: effective mass for InAs = m* = 0.027m
0

Ans:

Ed Ec =

= -13.6 (0.027) eV = -1.6 meV
(15.15)
2

Note: The donor level is very close to the conduction bandedge due to small
effective mass of the electrons.



Energy-band diagrams for degenerately doped
(a) n-type (The Fermi energy level is in
the conduction band)
(b) p-type (The Fermi energy level is in
the valence band)
Energy-band diagrams for complete ionization
(a) Donor states
(b) Acceptor states
Energy-band diagrams for position of the Fermi level at T = 0 K
(a) n-type semiconductors (b) p-type semiconductors
Figure shows the electron concentration vs temperature in Si doped with 5 x 10
14
donors
per cm
3
(n-type)

1. The intrinsic carrier concentration, n
i
is a very strong function of temperature. As the
temperature increases, additional electron-hole pairs are thermally generated so that n
i
2
term
may begin to dominate.
2. The semiconductor will eventually lose its extrinsic characteristics.
3. Partial ionization or freeze-out at low temperature.
(a) Energy-band diagrams showing position of
Fermi level relative to intrinsic Fermi level
for n-type (N
d
> N
a
) semiconductor
(b) Energy-band diagrams showing position of
Fermi level relative to intrinsic Fermi level
for p-type (N
a
> N
d
) semiconductor
Position of Fermi level as a function of donor concentration (n-type) and
acceptor concentration (p-type)
Test Question

For GaAs, the ratio m*/m
0
= m
h
*/m
e
= 0.52 at temp,
T = 300K, k
B
T = 0.026 eV, k
B
= 8.6 x 10
-5
eV/K

a) Determine the position of the Fermi level of GaAs
below E
C
if its band gap is 1.42 eV (In terms of E
V
)



b) Draw the positions of E
C
, E
Fi
and E
V
.

c) How big is the shift of the Fermi level if the
temperature is 450K
Use : E
Fi
= (E
V
+ E
C
)

+ k
B
T ln (m
h
*/m
e
)
Ans:
a) E
C
+ E
V
= (E
C
- E
V
) + 2 E
V
Recall: E
g
= E
C
- E
V


= E
g
+ 2E
V


E
Fi
= (E
V
+ E
C
)

+ k
B
T ln (m
h
*/m
e
)

E
Fi
= (E
g
+ 2E
V
) + k
B
T ln (m
h
*/m
e
)

= 1.42 + E
V
+ (0.026) ln (0.52) = 0.71 + E
V
+ (-0.0128)
2
= E
V
+ 0.6972 eV

b)








c) k
B
T = (8.6 x 10
-5
)(450) = 0.0388 eV
E
Fi
= 1.42 + E
V
+ (0.0388) ln (0.52) = 0.6910 + E
V

2
E = 0.6972 0.6910 = 0.0062 eV
E
C

E
Fi

E
V

1.42 eV
0.6972 eV
Energy-band diagrams showing the redistribution of electrons when
donors are added
Carriers in doped semiconductors:

n

= total free electrons in the conduction band

n
d
= electrons bound to the donors

p = total free electrons in the valence band

p
a
= holes bound to the acceptors

The fraction of electrons tied to the donor levels in a n-doped material
with doping density N
d
:




The fraction of electron tied to the acceptors levels in a p-doped
material with doping density N
a
:


n
d
= { 1 + (N
c
/ 2N
d
) exp [- (E
c
- E
d
) / (k
B
T) ]}
-1

(n

+ n
d
)
p
a
= { 1 + (N
v
/ 4N
a
) exp [- (E
a
- E
v
) / (k
B
T) ]}
-1

(p

+ p
a
)
Quiz Question
The fraction of total electrons still in the donor states at temperature
T = 450 K is given by
n
d
= { 1 + (N
c
/ 2N
d
) exp [- (E
c
- E
d
) / (k
B
T) ]}
-1

(n

+ n
d
)


Consider As doping in Si at a concentration, N
d
= 10
16
cm
-3
with
N
c
= 2.8 x 10
19
cm
-3
and E
d
for As is 0.054 eV below Ec.

Ans:
n
d
= 1 + N
c
exp [- (E
c
- E
d
)]
-1

(n

+ n
d
) 2N
d
k
B
T


= 1 + (2.8 x 10
19
) exp [ - 0.054]
-1
2(10
16
) (8.6 x 10
-5
) (450)

= 1 + 1400 exp (- 1.3953)
-1



= 2.8747 x 10
-3
~ 0.3 % (Means 99.7 % electrons have transferred to
conduction band)
{ }
{
}
{ }
Note:
E
c
- E
d

= E
g
= 0.054 eV
E
C

E
d

E
V

0.054 eV
Quiz /Test Questions
Determine the % of fraction of total electrons still in the donor states at
T = 300 K (around room temperature).
Assume Si is doped with phosphorus to a concentration of N
d
= 5 x 10
15
cm
-3
, N
c
= 2.8
x 10
19
cm
-3
, k
B
T = 0.0259.
E
c
- E
d
= The ionization energy of the donor electrons (Impurity (donor = phosphorus)
with Si) = 0.045 eV.

Use n
d
= { 1 + (N
c
/ 2N
d
) exp [- (E
c
- E
d
) / (k
B
T) ]}
-1

(n

+ n
d
)

Ans: 0.203%

Comment:
1. Shows that vast/majority of the donor electrons are in the conduction band.
2. Only ~ 0.2 % of the donor electrons are still in the donor states.
3. At room temp., we can say that the donor states are completely ionized.
4. n
d
= The density of electrons occupying the donor level.
5. N
d
= The concentration of ionized donors

Quiz/Test Questions
Determine the phosphorus doping concentration in Si at 300K such that 1 % of
the donor electrons are still in the donor states.
Ans: N
d
= 2.49 x 10
16
cm
-3

Example
Calculate the density of electrons, n in a Si conduction band if the
Fermi level is 0.2 eV below the conduction band at 300K. Compare the
results by using the Boltzmann and the Joyce-Dixon approximation.
Given: The effective density of the conduction band states in Si at 300K
is N
C
= 2.78 x 10
19
cm
-3

k
B
T (Si) = 0.026 eV
Ans:
Boltzmann approximation
n = N
C
exp - (E
c
- E
F
)
k
B
T

= (2.78 x 10
19
) exp - 0.2
0.026
= 1.27 x 10
16
cm
-3

Joyce-Dixon approximation
E
F
- E
C
= k
B
T [ln (n / N
c
) + (1/8) (n / N
c
)]

- 0.2 = 0.026 ln n + 1 n n = 1.27 x 10
16
cm
-3



N
C
8 N
C

{
}
}
}
{
{
E
C

E
F
= 0.2
E
V

Example (Final Sem 1 09/10)

Given that the ionization energy of an incorporated particular impurity is 0.206 eV
away from the minimum of the conduction band of silicon.

a) What can be said about the type of this impurity. [1 mark]

b) Why do we need the impurities in the semiconductor devices? [3 marks]

c) What are the majority and minority carriers upon ionization of
the impurity. [2 marks]

d) The resulting Fermi level is shifted by 0.356 eV away from its original
intrinsic location. Calculate the impurity concentration (i.e the majority
and minority carriers density). [4 marks]

e) Calculate the impurity intrinsic Fermi level for the majority and minority
carriers (in terms of E
i
) [2 Marks]
10 16 3
0.356
exp (1.5 10 ) exp 1.32 10
0.026
F i
i
B
E E
n n x x cm
k T

(
(
= = =
(
(


2 10 2
4 3
16
(1.5 10 )
1.7 10
1.32 10
i
n x
p x cm
n x

(
= = =
(

a) n-type (Donor-type) impurity.

b) The addition of impurities to a semiconductor devices, known as

doping, has the effect of shifting the Fermi level within the

material. This results in a material with predominantly negative

(n type) or positive (p type) charge carriers depending on the

dopant species.

c) Majority carriers = Electrons,

Minority carriers = Holes

d)





e)






16
10
1.32 10
ln (0.026) ln 0.357
1.5 10
Fn i B i i
i
n x
E E k T E E eV
n x
( (
= + = + = +
( (

4
10
1.7 10
ln (0.026) ln 0.357
1.5 10
Fp i B i i
i
p x
E E k T E E eV
n x
( (
= = + = +
( (

Note:
E
F
- E
0
=
k
B
T ln (n / N
c
)
Figure 1: Periodic Table

Example (Final Sem 2 08/09)








A Silicon ingot is doped with 10
16
Aluminium (p-type) atoms/cm
3
.

Let T=300 K.
(i) Find the majority and minority carrier concentrations.
State your assumption. [7 marks]

Assume complete ionization. (1)

Majority carrier concentration/hole concentration,
p = Na =10
16
cm
-3


(2)

Minority carrier concentration/electron concentration,
n = n
i
2
/p (2)

= (1.5x10
10
)
2
/10
16
cm
-3
(1)

= 2.25 x10
4
cm
-3
(1)





(ii) Find the positions of the Fermi level with reference to the top of the
valence band, using the Joyce-Dixon approximation.
[3 marks]









(iii) Find the positions of the Fermi level with reference to the intrinsic
Fermi level. [3 marks]








16 16
18 18
1
ln (1)
8
10 1 10
0.025852 ln (1)
9.84 10 9.84 10
8
0.179 (1)
F v B
v v
F v
F v
p p
E E k T
N N
E E
E E eV
(
= +
(

(
= +
(


=

( ) /
16
10
( ) ln (1)
10
( ) 0.025852 ln (1)
1.5 10
( ) 0.3487 (1)
F Fi B
E E k T
i
F Fi B
i
F Fi
F Fi
p
e
n
p
E E k T
n
E E
E E eV

=
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
=
|

\ .
=





0.3487 eV
0.179 eV
(iv) Draw the flat band diagram, indicating clearly the positions
of E
c
, E
v
, E
F
and E
Fi
. [4 marks]





















Example (Test 1 Sem 1 09/10) [20 marks]

(a) Where is E
F
located (sketch the energy-band diagram) in the energy band of
silicon at 300K with: [7 marks]

i) n = 10
17
cm
-3
from Ec








ii) p = 10
14
cm
-3
from Ev [7 marks]







Ec
E
F

Ev


0.146 eV
17
19
10
ln (0.026) ln 0.146
2.78 10
C F B
C
n
E E k T eV
N x
( (
= = =
( (

(0.146)
F C
E E eV =
14
18
10
ln (0.026) ln 0.2989
9.84 10
v F B
v
p
E E k T eV
N x
( (
= = =
( (

(0.2989)
F v
E E eV =
Ec
E
F

Ev


0.2989 eV
( )
19 16 3
0.2
exp (2.78 10 ) exp 1.27 10
0.025852
C F
C
B
E E
n N x x cm
k T

(

(
= = =
(
(


2 10 2
4 3
16
(1.5 10 )
1.77 10
1.27 10
i
n x
p x cm
n x

= = =
Example
Calculate the density of electrons, n in a Si conduction band if the Fermi level is 0.2
eV below the conduction band at 300 K. [4 marks]

Then, determine the density of holes, p in a Si conduction band. [2 marks]

Revision
2 2
0
/ 2 2.0 E k m eV =
3/ 2 1/ 2
0 0
2 3
2 ( )
( )
m E V
N E
t

=
b) Cant plot since:

N(E) = (E - V
0
)

N(E) = (E - (-2))

N(E) = (E + 2)

N(E) = (- 3 + 2)

= (- 1)

Not allowed
N(E) = (- 4 + 2)

= (- 2)

not allowed
N(E) = (- 5 + 2)

= (- 3)

not allowed

Note:
c) Can plot since:

N(E) = (E - V
0
)

N(E) = (E - (-2))

N(E) = (E + 2)

N(E) = (- 1 + 2)

= ( 1)

Allowed
N(E) = ( 0 + 2)

= ( 2)

Allowed
N(E) = ( 1 + 2)

= ( 3)

Allowed



-2.0 eV
E(eV)
k
1a). Plot the Energy - momentum, E-k relation. (2 marks)
b). Plot the Density of states Energy, N(E) E relation for the electron
between -3.0 eV and -5.0 eV. (2 marks)
c). Plot the Density of states Energy, N(E) E relation for the electron
between -1.0 eV and 1.0 eV. (2+1 marks)

Given:
,
a)






Revision (almost like Final Sem 1 1213)

N(E)
E(eV)
-2.0
Allowed state, when E > -2 (-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, )
Allowed state, when E > -2 (-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, )
d
d
n
n n +
( )
1
1
19
1
19
17 3
( )
1 exp
2
2.78 10 0.045
0.05 1 exp
2 0.025852
2.78 10
0.05 1 0.175
2
1.2832 10
d C C d
d d B
d
d
d
n N E E
n n N k T
x
N
x
N
N x cm

(
| | | |

= +
( | |
+
\ . \ .

(
| |

| |
= +
( |
|
\ .
\ .

(
| |
= +
( |
\ .

=
FINAL SEM 1 2010/2011 + Quiz

a) Determine the doping concentration of phosphorus (electrons) in Si at 300 K
where the percentage of is equal to 5.0 %.
Consider phosphorus doping in Si with E
d
is 0.045 eV below Ec. [3 marks]

Egap Si = 1.124 eV
2 10 2
3
17
(1.5 10 )
1753
1.2832 10
i
n x
p cm
n x

= = =
b). Determine the doping concentration of phosphorus (holes) in Si at 300 K. [2 marks]

c). What is the percentage of the dopants (phosphorus) in the conduction level. [1 mark]
(100 5)% = 95 %

d). Sketch the flat energy band diagram and label the values of the gap between E
c
E
d
, and
E
d
- E
Fi
. [3 marks]





E
Fi

1.124 /2 = 0.562 eV
0.045 eV
0.517 eV
E
C

E
Fn
= E
d

SEM II 2010/2011 (10 marks)
As your first assignment as an electronics
engineer, you are to design a laser by
recommending a good material. You have to
present the following to your superior, with
justifications, diagrams, calculations and
background information on the material chosen.

*If your answers is GaAs.
(a)Crystal structure [3 marks]
GaAs (1), Zinc blende (1), tetrahedral structures (1)

(b) Atom density, taking into account that the
lattice constant is 5.65 . [4 marks]
N(a
3
) = 8/8 +6/2 = 4 (2)
Ga atom density = As atom density
= 4/a
3
= 4/(5.65x10
-8
)
3
=5x10
22
atoms/cm
3
(2)
(c) Band structure [3 marks]
Graph on the left (1) direct bandgap (1)
efficient light emission (1)

Sign for different AE level
E
Fi

E
V

E
C

E
Fn
= E
d

E
Fp
= E
a

AE = E
gap
= E
C
- E
V


AE = E
Fn
E
C
= -kBT ln (n/ni)


AE = E
V
E
Fp
= -kBT ln (p/ni)


AE = E
Fn
E
Fi
= kBT ln (n/ni)


AE = E
Fi
- E
Fp
= kBT ln (p/ni)


AE = E
new gap
= Vbi


(-)
(+)
(-)
(+)
E
Fi

E
V

E
C

E
Fn
= E
d

E
Fp
= E
a

E
gap
= 1.124 eV

E
Fn
E
C
= - 0.223 eV


E
V
E
Fp
= - 0.041 eV


E
Fn
E
Fi
= (1.124/2)-0.223=0.339 eV


E
Fi
- E
Fp
= (1.124/2)-0.041=0.521 eV


E
new gap
= Vbi = 0.339+0.521= 0.860 eV


FYI on the dopant in Si an example
(-)
(+)
(+)
(-)