PRINCIPLES OF LOSS PREVENTION

PRINCIPLES OF INCIDENT PREVENTION

THE Ministry of Labour and National Services (UK) postulated the following six principles of accident prevention in 1956 that are still valid. a) Accident prevention is an essential part of good management and of good workmanship. b) Management and workers must co-operate wholeheartedly in securing freedom from accidents. c) Top management must take the lead in organising safety. d) There must be a definite and known safety policy in each workplace.

e) The organisation and resources necessary to carry out the policy must exist. f) The best available knowledge and methods must be applied. These principles received legislative backing in the OSH Act 1994.

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION RISK ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL

IMPORTANCE DEFINATION
HAZARDS A hazard is anything that can cause harm (e.g. chemicals, electricity, working from ladders etc.). Risk is the chance or probability (big or small) of harm actually being done. (It can also be expressed as a frequency the number of events in unit time). Danger is the relative exposure to a hazard. A hazard may be present but there may be little danger because of the control precautions taken.

RISK

DANGER

THE CONCEPT Three basic steps should be taken to ensure a safe and healty workplace. They are based on the concept that the workplace should be modified to suit people, not vice versa. The three steps are:

QUANTITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT

Quantitative analysis uses numerical values (rather than the descriptive scales used in qualitative analysis) for both likelihood and consequences using data from a variety of sources. Application of quantitative methods is usually restricted to sensitive components of a major hazard installation. How much analysis is worthwhile is a function of the consequences of the adverse event and the difficulty in preventing it.

Identifying the hazard s involves recognising things which may cause injury or harm to the health of a person for instance flammable material, ignition sources or unguarded machinery; Assessing the risk involves looking at the possibility of injury or harm occurring to a person if exposed to a hazard; Controlling the risk by introducing measures which will eliminate or reduce the risk of a person being exposed to a hazard; It is important to regularly review the steps, especially if there are changes in the work environment, new technology is introduced or standards are changed.

IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDS
The identification of hazards should involve a critical appraisal of all activities to take account of hazards to employees; others affected by activities (e.g. members of the public and contractors) and to those using product and services. In the simplest cases, hazards can be identified by observation , comparing the circumstances with the relevant information. In more complex cases measurements such air sampling or examining the methods of machine operation may be necessary to identify the presence of hazards presented by chemicals or machinery. In the most complex or high risk, cases (for example, in the chemical or nuclear industry) special techniques and systems may be required such as hazard and operability studies (HAZOPS).

Specialist advice may be necessary in choosing and applying the most appropriate techniques. A combination of the following methods may be the most effective way to identify hazards. Methods of identifying workplace hazards include:

Previewing legislation and supporting codes of practice and guidance; Reviewing relevant Malaysian and international standards; Reviewing industry or trade association guidance; Reviewing other published information; Developing a hazard checklist;

Conducting walk-through surveys (audits) and inspections; Reviewing information from designers or manufacturers; Assessing the adequacy of training or knowledge required to work safely; Analysing unsafe incident, accident and injury data; Analysing work processes; Job safety analysis; Consulting with employees; Observation; Examining and considering material safety data sheet and product labels; and Seeking advice from specialist.

Some hazards are inherent in the work process such as mechanical hazards, noise or the toxic properties of substances.

Other hazards result from equipment or machine failure and misuse, control or power system failure, chemical spills and structural failures.
The conclusion of hazard identification should result in a list of hazard sources. The particular form in which that hazard occurs.

The areas of the workplace or work process where it occurs and the persons exposed to that hazard.

THE RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS

Gather information about each hazard identified. Think about how many people are exposed to each hazard and for how long. Use the information to assess the likelihood and consequence of each hazard and produce a qualitative risk table.

How likely is it than a hazardous event or situation will occur?

Very likely could happen frequently. Likely could happen occasionally. Unlike could happen but only rarely. Highly unlikely could happen but probably never will.

What might be the consequences of a hazardous event or situation?

Fatality Major injuries (normally irreversible injury or damage to health). Minor injuries (normally reversible injury or damage to health requiring days off work). Negligible injuries (first aid).

QUALITATIVE RISK TABLE

Consequence
Very likely Fatality Major injuries High High

Likelihood
Likely High High Unlikely Highly unlikely High Medium Medium Medium

Minor injuries
Negligible injuries

High
Medium

Medium
Medium

Medium
Low

Low
Low

Events or situations assessed as very likely with fatal consequences are the most serious (HIGH risk). Those assessed as highly unlikely with negligible injuries are the least serious (LOW risk).

Note the risk rating for each hazard on a worksheet. When you are developing risk control strategies, you should tackle anything with a HIGH rating first.

RISK CONTROL
Information or ideas on control measures can come from:

Codes of practice; Industry or trade associations; Specialists; MSDSs; and Other publications including those by manufacturers and suppliers.

The following hierarchy should be used when considering control measures. Most Effective Elimination removing the hazard or hazardous work practice from the workplace. This is most effective control measure;

Fairly Effective Substitution Isolation substituting or replacing a hazard or hazardous work practice with a less hazardous one; isolation or separating the hazard or hazardous work practice from peoples not involved in the work or the general work areas. Marking off hazardous areas, installing screens or barriers can do this. if the hazard cannot be eliminated, substituted or isolated, an engineering control is the next preferred measure. This may include modifications to tools or equipment providing guarding to machinery or equipment.

Engineering Control

Least Effective (back Up Controls) safe work practices essential

Administration control

includes introducing work practices that reduce the risk. This could include limiting the amount of time a person is exposed to a particular hazard; and should be considered only when other control measures are not practicable or to increase protection. A last resort measure.

Personal protective Equipment

Control measure are not mutually exclusive. That is, there may be circumstances where more than one control measure should be used to reduce exposure to hazards.

Risk control measure must also be maintained for example, interlocking guards have to be kept in working order work procedures have to be monitored to ensure they are being followed and hearing protectors have to be kept clean and checked for damage. In order to keep accurate records a recording or reporting systems should be developed implemented and maintained.

The control of high-risk activities may require procedures, which need to be strictly, followed, for example, a permit-to-work system, which ensures close supervision during implementation.
Maintaining risk control measures requires adequate inspection, maintenance and monitoring procedures to secure continued operation.

MORE SOPHISTICATED RISK IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT (SYSTEMS ENGINEERING)

The consideration of healthy and safety aspects at the design and planning stages of new plant and processes is vitally important in order to ensure that health and safety are built in, rather than bolted on. Many formal techniques have been developed for the systematic analysis of complex system. They attempt to consider all reasonable possibilities and all suffer from the drawback that the probability of future event can only be guessed.

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
1. Hazop Hazard and operability studies as a hazard identification technique, especially about new design / processes. The technique was developed in the chemical process industries and essentially it is a structured, multi-disciplinary brainstorming session. The brainstorming technique can be applied to any new project to identify hazards. At one time HAZOPs were mainly focused on fire and explosion endpoints, while now the scope usually includes toxic release, offensive odor and environment end-points. The end of a HAZOP survey is hazard identification, solution to problem are a separate effort. The HAZOP studies are time consuming and expensive.

FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS (FMEA)

The kinds of failure that could happen are examined and their effects in terms of maximum potential loss are evaluated. This analysis would from part of an overall Hazop study. System Component Failure Mode Failure Effect

Scrubber

Water pump

Inadequate water flow

Increased environmental pollution

FMEAs are performed at the component level to determine possible ways that equipment can fail and to determine the effect of such failure on the system. The FMEA is used to assure that component failure modes and their effects hev been considered and either eliminated or controlled that information for maintenance and operational manuals has been provided and that input to other safety analyses has been generated.

FAULT TREE ANALYSIS

Fault tree analysis is a logical method of analysing how and why a disaster could occur. It is a graphical technique that starts with the end event which is the accident or disaster (e.g. nuclear fuel melt-down) and works backward to find the initiating event or combination of event is known or can be estimated the probability of the end or top event can be calculated. The fault-tree is a logic diagram based on the principle of multicausality that traces all the branches of event that could contribute to an accident or failure. Data on individual components may be obtained from manufacturers reliability statistic or quality assurance information. It is a good technique for summating individual probabilities to obtain the overall probability of the event occurring.

HAZAN
Hazard analysis (Hazan) is undertaken to ascertain the magnitude of the potential problem and its potential for harm to the people, plant, process and the public. A subsequent analysis will then go on to examine the actual consequences worst possible case considerations and express them in quantifiable terms. To analyse the safety of a major hazard installation as well as its potential hazards, a hazard analysis should be carried out covering the following areas: (a) Which toxic, reactive, explosive or flammable substance in the installation constitute a major hazard;

(b) Which failures or errors could cause abnormal conditions leading to a major accident; (c) The consequences of a major accident for the workers, people living or working outside the installation or the environment; (d) Prevention measures for accident; (e) Mitigation of the consequences of an accident.

The analysis should indicate: (a) The worst events considered; (b) The route to those worst events;

(c) The time-scale to lesser events which might lead to the worst events; (d) The size of lesser events if their development is halted; (e) The relative likelihood of events; (f) The consequences of each event.

HUMAN ERROR ANALYSIS

At Three Mile Island, the operators misunderstanding of the cooling water status led to several actions or inaction which resulted in the accident.

Human error analysis adds considerations of human performance to the hazard evaluation process. Human behaviour must be factored into reliability analysis for it to be accurate in the increasing number of systems where errors in man-machine interaction can be an initiating event in a disaster. The most commonly used quantitative method for the measurement and assessment of personnel-induced errors is the Technique for Human Error Prediction (THERP). This procedure involves the following steps:

Identification of human activities which create a hazard Estimation of failure rates Effect of human failures on the system

The output of THERP is an input to fault tree or other methods of hazard analysis.

EVALUATING INJURIES AND ILLNESSES

Organisations should know the value of a good safety record. Work-related injuries and illnesses are expensive in terms of both decreased productivity and increased premiums for any compensation insurance and related costs. They become especially costly in human terms when they lead to the permanent Loss of a skilled worker or when they destroy employees morale. A good occupational business and an accurate system of evaluation are a part of such a program. An accurate evaluation is done by the use of incidence and severity rates, which can compare overall performance of an organisations existing safety record to the previous years record.

Using these rates, comparisons can also be made between different plants in a particular industry or departments within a particular plant. Thus, when the injury data for a particular unit are higher than for other units, the Safety professional must decide what action to take for applying corrective measures.

In order to monitor the progress in accident prevention it is necessary to keep records. Management and employees need to know the following: 1. The number of accidents occurring during each month and each year, in relation to the total number of employees at risk during the period under examination.

2. How the current period compares with past periods, so that trends and long-term performance can be observed. 3. The types of accidents which are occurring, and where they occur. COMPUTING THE INCIDENCE AND SEVERITY RATES Disabling-injury incidence rate is defined as the Number of lost-time days away from work for every 200,000-work hour. For example, a plant employing 850 employees worked 1,750,000 work hours last year. It incurred seven lost-time accidents during that period of time. The incidence rate for the plant last year is computed as follows:

INCIDENT RATE = NUMBER OF LOST TIME ACCIDENTS X 200,000 EMPLOYEE HOURS WORKED Thus, the computation for the above plant is: INCIDENCE RATE = 7 x 200,000 = 8 175,000 The eight in the computation represent eight lost-time accidents per every 200,000-work hour. The 200,000 hours in the formula was established by the BUREAU OF LABOUR STATISTICS. It is assumed that a base of 100 full-time employees would work 200,000 hours per year (40 hours per week per worker, 50 weeks per year).

COMPUTING THE SEVERITY RATE Severity rate is the number of lost-time days charged for disabling injuries per every 200,000-work hour. For example, a plant employing 50 employees clocked 600,000 work hours. It experienced 75 lost-time workdays during this year. The severity rate for that period of time is computed as follows: SEVERITY RATE = NUMBER OF LOST-TIME DAYS X 200,000 Employee hours worked THUS, the computation is as follows:

SEVERITY RATE = 75 X 200,000 = 25 600,000

The 25 in the formula represent 25 lost-time days for every 200,000 hours worked.

A plant may have a high incidence rate, and the injuries may be minor, or a plant may have a low incidence rate, but the injuries are severe. ELABORATE. THIS IS FOR INCIDENT. AND DO ON SEVERITY TOO.

ACCIDENTS WHY DO THEY HAPPEN?

Accident and hazards to health represent costly factors in the work environment and must be guarded against constantly. People do, mostly and for a variety of reasons. Sometimes employees are careless. Sometimes the boss has not given proper instructions. Sometimes employee attitudes are to be blame. NOT EDUCATED. MUST SENT TRAINING. MUST KNOW THE LAW REGARDING SAFETY Sometimes the supervisor has not helped employees to understand the dangers involved in their work. Sometimes equipment fails. Sometimes machines are not properly guarded but there is always a person who could have prevented the accident by taking proper protective or control action.

This is not to remove the responsibility for the company, institution, or agency involved. Ownership and management must be committed to the principles of accident and health protection. This often means a sizeable investment in protective equipment and time consuming safety and health measures. Accident which are undesired and costly events are the direct result of unsafe activities / acts and conditions. Management can control both of these unsafe practices. Management is responsible for the creation and maintenance of the working environment and tasks, into which workers must fit into and react. Control of workers and their behaviours is not easy. They have to be educated and trained that accidents are not inevitable but caused and that they must also be trained to recognise the need to comply and develop systems of work.

Unfortunately, not many employers, managers and workers had been educated about workplace safety and health.- PENTING! FAILURE TO MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE WITH ADEQUATE STANDARDS FOR: Leadership & Administration Management Training Planned Inspections Task Analysis & Procedures Accident / Incident Investigation Task Observations Emergency Preparedness Organisational Rules Accident / Incident Analysis / Employee Training

Personal Protective Equipment Health Control and Services Programme Evaluation System Engineering Controls Personal Communications Group Meetings General Promotion Hiring & Placement Purchasing Controls Off-the Job salary

PERSONAL FACTORS

JOB FACTORS

Inadequate Capability
Physical / Physiological Mental / Psychological

Lack of Knowledge Lack of Skill Stress

Physical / Physiological Mental / Psychological

Improper Motivation

Inadequate Leadership or Supervision Inadequate Engineering Inadequate Purchasing Inadequate Maintenance Inadequate Tools, Equipment, Materials Inadequate Work Standards Abuse or Misuse Wear and Tear

SUBSTANDARD PRACTICES Operating Equipment Without Authority Failure to Warn Failure to Secure Operating at Improper Speed Making Safety Devices Inoperable Removing Safety Devices Using Defective Equipment Failing to Use PPE Property Improper Loading Improper Placement Improper Lifting

SUBSTANDARD CONDITIONS Inadequate Guards or Barriers Inadequate or Improper Protective Equipment, Detective Tools, Equipment or Materials Congestion or Restricted Action Inadequate Warning System Fire & Explosion Hazards Poor Housekeeping : Disorder Noise Exposure Radiation Exposure Temperature Extremes Inadequate or Excess Illumination LIGHTING Inadequate Ventilation

SUBSTANDARD PRACTICES Improper Position for Task Servicing Equipment in Operations Horseplay - BERGURAU Under Influence of Alcohol and / or Other Drugs

CONTACTS Struck Against (Running or Bumping Into) Struck By (Met By Moving Object) Fall to Lower Level Fall on Same Level (Slip and Fall, Tip Over) Caught In (Punch) Caught On (Snagged, Hung) Caught Between (Crushed) Contact With (Electricity, Radiation, Toxic) Over-stress, Overexertion)

PERSONAL HARM PROPERTY DAMAGE Major Injury or Illness Serious Injury or Illness Minor Injury or Illness

PROCESS PROBLEMS Catastrophic Major Serious Minor

Catastrophic Major Serious Minor

ACCIDENTS STATISTICS A CHALLENGE TO REDUCE

1. WHAT ARE ACCIDENTS?

Accidents are the consequences of unplanned events.

2. WHY MUST WE INVESTIGATE THEM?

Work place accidents or dangerous occurrences debilitate the workers environment leading to his loss of working morale. This can give rise to work place stress thereby leading to high absenteeism and high staff turnover. Workers then look to management for restitution. It is therefore important that accidents are investigated promptly and objectively so that worker confidence is restored in the organisation.

Dangerous accidents and dangerous occurrences have to be investigated in order to: 2.1 find out why it happened 2.2 ensure that it does not occur again 2.3 and resituate worker morale Once the accident has occurred it is the earnest desire to profit from the losses of the accident that motivates the investigator to keep the tempo of accident investigation going.

3. WHAT IS THE BASIS OF ACCIDENT PREVENTION? There is an ancient proverb, which says that look after the cents and the dollars will look after it. In parallel to this proverb, there is a corollary when it comes to accident prevention prevent unsafe acts and accidents will be prevented. The relationship between unsafe acts and fatal / disabling injuries was established Heinrich and it is illustrated as follows:

1 Fatal or disabling Injury 30 minor injuries 300 material damages 3000 unsafe acts

4. HOW CAN ONE, THEN, MONITOR AND ELIMINATE UNSAFE ACTS? Practising safe systems of working can eliminate unsafe acts. 5. THE ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION PROCESS There are 3 stages in the investigation process: 5.1 Gathering Information (First Stage of Investigation)

5.1.1 5.1.2

An Incident Statement Interviewing Witness

5.2 Discussion On Section of Accident (Second Stage) 5.3 Causes of the Accident (Third Stage) 5.4 Corrective Action Recommendation to Prevent Recurrent False (Third Stage) 5.5 Managing For Results (Writing and Reporting)

Once the cause and remedial action have been established, the report must be written up.

HAZARDS AND RISKS IN ALL WORKPLACES

There are different types of hazards at various work places. Whatever hazards can be eliminated should be done so, if not substitute them wherever possible and the rest would have to be controlled.

Machinery Hazards includes traps, impact, contact entanglement or ejection of part of and by the machine or failure of components. Machinery safety can be achieved by:
a) eliminating the cause of the danger (intrinsic safety). b) reducing the need for people to approach the dangerous part or providing safety devices as control. c) the provision of protective clothing or equipment.

Mechanical Handling Hazards include use of cranes, powered industrial trucks, forklift or conveyor. In all circumstances, the safety of the equipment can be effected by the safety of operating conditions, workplace hazards and the operator.

Chemical Hazards are dangerous substance, which can cause harm after a single exposure or repeated exposure.

They are classified according to the type of harm such as exposure / flammable, irritant corrosive toxic carcinogens, narcotic or oxidising chemical incident.

Electrical Hazards are due to electric shock, electric bruises and electrical files. Electrical safety includes everything, safe system of work, miscalculation, fuses, circuit breaks, maintenance, isolation and competency. Other Hazards include noise hazards, radiation hazards, lightning hazards, temperature hazards, biological hazards, vibration hazards, ergonomic hazards and other miscellaneous hazards due to stress or fatigue.

PROCESS OF OPERATION: NATURE AND DESCRIPTION OF HAZARDS Abrasive blasting Abrasive blasting equipment may be automatic, or it may be manually operated. Either type may use sand, steel, shot or artificial abrasives. The dust levels of workroom air should be examined to make sure that the operators are not over exposed. Abrasive-machining An abrasive machining operation is characterised by the removal of material from a work piece by the cutting action of abrasive particles contained in or on a machine tool. The work piece material is removed in the form of small particles and, whenever the operation is performed dry, these particles are projected into the air near the operation. Assembly Operation Improper positioning of equipment and handling of work parts may present ergonomic hazards due to repeated awkward motion and resulting in excessive stresses.

Bagging and handling of dry materials. The bagging of powdered materials (such as plastic resins, paint pigments, pesticides, cement and the like) is generally accompanied by the generation of airborne dusts. Ceramic coating Ceramic coating may present the hazard of airborne dispersion of toxic pigments, plus hazards of heat stress from the furnaces and hot ware. Coating Operations Whenever substance containing volatile constituents is applied to a surface in an industrial environment, there is potential for any vapours evolved to enter the breeding zones of workers.

Dry Mixing Mixing of dry materials may present a dust hazard and should take place in completely enclosed mixers whenever air-sampling indicates excessive amount of airborne dust are present. Electron-beam welding Any process involving an electric discharge in a vacuum may be a source of ionising radiation. Such process involves the use of electronbeam equipment and similar devices. Fabric and paper coating The coating and impregnating of fabric and paper with plastic or rubber solution may involve evaporation into the workroom air of large quantities of solvents.

Forming and forging Hot bending, forming, or cutting of metals or non-metals may involve hazards of lubricant mist, decomposition products of the lubricant, skin contact with the lubricant, heat stress (including radiant heat), noise and dust. Grinding Operations Grinding, crushing or commenting of any material may contaminate workroom air because of the dust produced from the material being processed or from the grinding wheel. High temperatures from hot castings, unlegged steam pipes, process equipment and so on.

Any process or operation involving high ambient temperatures (dry-bulb temperature), radiant heat load (globe temperature), or excessive humanity (wet-bulb temperature) should be examined to determine the magnitude of the physical stresses that may be present. Material handling, Warehousing Work areas should be checked for levels of carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen arising from internal combustion engine, forklift operations. Operations should also be evaluated for ergonomic hazards. Metalizing Uncontrolled coating of parts with molten metals present hazards of dust and fumes of metals and fluxes in addition to heat and nonionising radiation.

Microwave and radio frequency-heating operations Any process or operation involving microwaves or induction heating should be examined to determine the magnitude of heating effects and, in some cases, noise exposure to the employees. Molten metals Any process involving the melting and pouring of molten metals should be examined to determine the level of air contaminants of any toxic gas, metal fume, or dust produced in the operation. Open-surface tanks Open-surface tanks are used by industry for numerous purposes. Among their applications can be included the common operations of degreasing, electroplating, metal stripping, fur and leather finishing, dyeing and pickling. An open-surface tank operation is defined as any operation involving the

HAZARD ASSESSMENT, PREVENTION, AND CONTROL

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Mechanical Hazards and Machine Safeguarding Falling, Impact, Acceleration, Lifting, and Vision Hazards Hazards of Temperature Extremes Pressure Hazards Electrical Hazards Fire Hazards and Life Safety Industrial Hygiene and Confined Spaces Radiation Hazards Noise and Vibration Hazards Computers, Automation, and Robots Bloodborne Pathogens in the Workplace

MECHANICAL HAZARDS AND MACHINE SAFEGUARDING

Major Topics

Common Mechanical Injuries Safeguarding Defined OSHAs Requirements for Machine Guarding Risk Assessment in Machine Operation Requirements for All Safeguards Point-of-Operation Guards Point-of-Operation Devices Machine Guarding Self-Assessment Feeding and Ejection Systems Robot Safeguards Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout / Tagout Systems)

General Precautions Basic Program Content Taking Corrective Action

FALLING, IMPACT, ACCELERATION, LIFTING, AND VISION HAZARDS

Major Topics

Causes of Falls Kinds of Falls Walking and Slipping Slip and Fall Prevention Programs OSHA Fall Protection Standards Ladder Safety Impact and Acceleration Hazards (head, eyes, face, and feet protection) Lifting Hazards Standing Hazards

Hand Protection Personal Protective Equipment Forklift Safety (Powered Industrial Trucks)

HAZARDS OF TEMPERATURE EXTREMES

Major Topics

Thermal Comfort Heat Stress and Strain Cold Stress Burns and Their Effects Chemical Burns

Part of providing a safe and healthy workplace is appropriately controlling the temperature, humidity, and air distribution in work areas. A work environment in which the temperature is not properly controlled can be uncomfortable. Extremes of either heat or cold can be more than uncomfortable they can be dangerous. Heat stress, cold stress, and burns are major concerns of modern safety and health professionals. This chapter provides the information that professionals need to know to overcome the hazards associated with extreme temperatures.

PRESSURE HAZARDS
Major Topics

Pressure Hazards Defined Sources of Pressure Hazards Boilers and Pressure Hazards High-Temperature Water Hazards Hazards of Unfired Pressure Vessels Hazards of High-Pressure Systems Cracking Hazards in Pressure Vessels Nondestructive Testing of Pressure Vessels Pressure Dangers to Humans Decompression Procedures Measurement of Pressure Hazards Reduction of Pressure Hazards

PRESSURE HAZARDS DEFINED

Pressure is defined in physics as the force exerted against an opposing fluid or thrust distributed over a surface. This may be expressed in force or weight per unit of area, such as psi (pounds per square inch). A hazard is a condition with the potential of causing injury to personnel, damage to equipment or structures, loss of material, or lessening of the ability to perform a prescribed function. Thus, a pressure hazard is a hazard caused by a dangerous condition involving pressure. Critical injury and damage can occur with relatively little pressure. OSHA defines high-pressure cylinders as those designated with a service pressure of 900 pounds psi or greater.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Major Topics

Electrical Hazards Defined Sources of Electrical Hazards Electrical Hazards to Humans Detection of Electrical Hazards Reduction of Electrical Hazards OSHAs Electrical Standards Electrical Safety Program Electrical Hazards Self-Assessment Prevention of Arc Flash Injuries (NFPA 70E)

Consider the following scenario: A textile mill in Massachusetts was fined $66,375 when an employee contacts OSHA and complains about unsafe conditions at the mill. The Region 1 Office of OSHA conducted an investigation in response to the complaint that uncovered the following willful violation: allowing employees to perform live electrical work without safe work procedures or appropriate personal protective equipment. In addition, the investigation uncovered several serious violations including storage of flammable materials near emergency exits, improper storage of oxygen and acetylene cylinders, failure to post load ratings, and exposed live electrical source and unsuitable electrical outlets for wet or damp locations.

FIRE HAZARDS AND LIFE SAFETY

Major Topics

Fire Hazards Defined Sources of Fire Hazards Fire Dangers to Humans Detection of Fire Hazards Reduction of Fire Hazards Development of Fire Safety Standards OSHA Fire Standards Life Safety Flame-Resistant Clothing Fire Safety Programs Explosive Hazards OSHAs Firefighting Options Self-Assessment in Fire Protection

The assistant manager of a fuel storage plant was killed while trying to repair a broken-down piece of equipment. According to the NFPA Journal, The victim had been called to investigate a strong odor of gasoline that had been detected by a gasoline tank driver. It was suspected that the facilitys vapor-recovery system, which captures gasoline vapors displaced from tank trucks being filled with product, had malfunctioned. Soon after the manager entered the area, a violent explosion occurred. The victims severely burned body and repair tools were found near the damaged equipment. In other recent example, facility damage was held to a minimum and human injury was avoided when a sprinkler system suppressed a fire that broke out on the second floor of a polyurethane foam manufacturing plant in North Carolina. The NFPA Journal stated,

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND CONFINED SPACES

Major Topics

Overview of Industrial Hygiene Industrial Hygiene Standards OSH Act and Industrial Hygiene Hazards in the Workplace Toxic Substances Defined Entry Points for Toxic Agents Effects of Toxic Substances Relationship of Doses and Responses Airborne Contaminants Effects of Airborne Toxics Effects of Carcinogens Asbestos Hazards

Indoor Air Quality and Sick-Building Syndrome Toxic Mold and Indoor Air Quality Threshold Limit Values Hazard Recognition and Evaluation Prevention and Control NIOSH and Industrial Hygiene NIOSH Guidelines for Respirators Standards and Regulations General Safety Precautions Confined Space Hazards OSHA Confined Space Standard OSHA Standards for Toxic and Hazardous Materials OSHAs Hazard Communication Standard

Industrial hygiene is an area of specialization within the broader field of industrial safety and health. This chapter provides prospective and practicing safety and health professionals with the information they need to know about this area of specialization.

RADIATION HAZARDS
Major Topics

Ionizing Radiation: Terms and Concepts Exposure of Employees to Radiation Precautions and Personal Monitoring Caution Signs and Labels Evacuation Warning Signal Instructing and Informing Personnel Storage and Disposal of Radioactive Material Notification of Incidents Reports and Records of Overexposure Notice to Employees Nonionizing Radiation

Electromagnetic Fields in the Workplace OSHA Standards for Health and Environmental Controls

The widow of a construction worker who helped build the British Nuclear Fuels (BNF) Sellafield plant was awarded $286,500 when it was determined that his death from chronic myeloid leukemia was the result of overexposure to radiation. Sellafield was constructed for the purpose of separating uranium from used fuel rods.
Working at the plant for approximately nine months, the victim received a total cumulative dose of almost 52 millisieverts of radiation, which exceeded the established limit for an entire 12-month period. BNF compensated the victims wife and the families of 20 additional workers who died from causes related to radiation.

Radiation hazards in the workplace fall into one of two categories: ionizing or nonionizing. This chapter provides prospective and practicing safety and health professionals with the information they need concerning radiation hazards in both categories.

NOISE AND VIBRATION HAZARDS

Major Topics

Hearing Loss Prevention Terms Characteristics of Sound Hazard Levels and Risks Standards and Regulations Workers Compensation and Noise Hazards Identifying and Assessing Hazardous Noise Conditions Noise Control Strategies Vibration Hazards Other Effects of Noise Hazards Corporate Policy Evaluating Hearing Loss Prevention Programs

The modern workplace can be noisy. This poses two safety- and health-related problems. First, there is the problem of distraction. Noise can distract workers and disrupt their concentration, which can lead to accidents. Second, there is the problem of hearing loss. Exposure to noise that exceeds prescribed levels can result in permanent hearing loss. Modern safety and health professionals need to understand the hazards associated with noise and vibration, how to identify and assess these hazards, and how to prevent injuries related to them. This chapter provides the necessary information for prospective and practicing safety and health professionals to do so. HEARING LOSS PREVENTION TERMS There are certain terms common to hearing loss prevention that must be understood by safety and health professionals. You may find the definitions in this section helpful when trying to understand the content of this chapter.

COMPUTERS, AUTOMATION, AND ROBOTS

Major Topics

Impact of Automation on the Workplace VDTs in Offices and Factories Human-Robot Interaction Safety and Health Problems Associated with Robots Safety and Health in Office Automation Industrial Medicine and Robots Technological Alienation in the Automated Workplace Minimizing the Problems of Automation Challenge for the Future

Automation of the workplace has changed, and continues to change, how work is done. The introduction of automated processes that involve computers and robots has changed the environment of the modern workplace and what is needed to succeed in it. IMPACT OF AUTOMATION ON THE WORKPLACE The advent of automation on the workplace was the next logical step on a continuum of developments intended to enhance productivity. Quality, and competitiveness. This continuum began when humans first developed simple tools to assist them in doing work. This was the age of hand tools and manual work. It was eventually superseded by the age of mechanization during the Industrial Revolution.

During the age of mechanization, machines were developed to do work previously done by humans using hand tools. The 1960s saw the beginnings of broad-based efforts at automating mechanical processes and systems. These early attempts at automation resulted in islands of automation, or individual automated systems lacking electronic communication with other related systems. Examples of islands of automation are a stand-alone computer.