Chapter Two: Vector Spaces

I. Definition of Vector Space

II. Linear Independence
III. Basis and Dimension
Topic: Fields
Topic: Crystals
Topic: Voting Paradoxes
Topic: Dimensional Analysis
Vector space ~ Linear combinations of vectors.
Ref: T.M.Apostol, Linear Algebra, Chap 3, Wiley (97)
I. Definition of Vector Space
I.1. Definition and Examples
I.2. Subspaces and Spanning Sets
Algebraic Structures
Ref: Y.Choquet-Bruhat, et al, Analysis, Manifolds & Physics, Pt I.,
North Holland (82)
Structure Internal Operations Scalar Multiplication
Group * No
Ring, Field * , + No
Module / Vector Space + Yes
Algebra + , * Yes
Field = Ring with idenity & all elements except 0 have inverses.
Vector space = Module over Field.
I.1. Definition and Examples
Definition 1.1: (Real) Vector Space ( V, + ; P )
A vector space (over P) consists of a set V along with 2 operations + and + s.t.
(1) For the vector addition + :
v, w, u e V
a) v + w e V ( Closure )
b) v + w = w + v ( Commutativity )
c) ( v + w ) + u = v + ( w + u ) ( Associativity )
d) - 0 e V s.t. v + 0 = v ( Zero element )
e) - v e V s.t. v + (v) = 0 ( Inverse )
(2) For the scalar multiplication + :
v, w e V and a, b e P, [ P is the real number field (P,+,)
f) a + v e V ( Closure )
g) ( a + b ) + v = ( a + v ) + (b + v ) ( Distributivity )
h) a + ( v + w ) = ( a + v ) + ( a + w )
i) ( a b ) + v = a + ( b + v ) ( Associativity )
j) 1 + v = v
+ is always written as + so that one writes v + w instead of v + w
and + are often omitted so that one writes a b v instead of ( a b ) + v
Definition 1.1: (Real) Vector Space ( V, + ; P )
A vector space (over P) consists of a set V along with 2 operations + and s.t.
(1) For the vector addition + :
v, w, u e V
a) v + w e V ( Closure )
b) v + w = w + v ( Commutativity )
c) ( v + w ) + u = v + ( w + u ) ( Associativity )
d) - 0 e V s.t. v + 0 = v ( Zero element )
e) - v e V s.t. v v = 0 ( Inverse )
(2) For the scalar multiplication :
v, w e V and a, b e P, [ P is the real number field (P,+,) ]
f) a v e V ( Closure )
g) ( a + b ) v = a v + b v ( Distributivity )
h) a ( v + w ) = a v + a w
i) ( a b ) v = a ( b v ) = a b v ( Associativity )
j) 1 v = v
Definition in Conventional Notations
Example 1.3: P
2

P
2
is a vector space if

1 1
2 2
x y
a b a b
x y
| | | |
+ = +
| |
\ . \ .
x y
1 1
2 2
ax by
ax by
+
| |
=
|
+
\ .
, a b eR
0
0
| |
=
|
\ .
0
with
Example 1.4: Plane in P
3
.
The plane through the origin 0
x
P y x y z
z

| |

|
= + + =
`
|
|
\ .
)
is a vector space.
P is a subspace of P
3
.
Proof it yourself / see Hefferon, p.81.
Proof it yourself / see Hefferon, p.82.
Example 1.5:
Let + & + be the (column) matrix addition & scalar multiplication, resp., then
( Z
n
, + ; Z ) is a vector space.
( Z
n
, + ; P ) is not a vector space since closure is violated under scalar multiplication.
Example 1.6:
0
0
0
0
V

| |
|

|
=
`
|

|

\ .
)
Let then (V, + ; P ) is a vector space.
Definition 1.7: A one-element vector space is a trivial space.
Example 1.8: Space of Real Polynomials of Degree n or less, H
n

0
n
k
n k k
k
a x a
=


= e
`

)

P R
{ }
2 3
3 0 1 2 3 k
a a x a x a x a = + + + e P R
Vector addition:
0 0
n n
k k
k k
k k
a x b x
= =
+ = +

a b
( )
k k
k
a b + = + a b
Scalar multiplication:
0
n
k
k
k
b b a x
=
| |
=
|
\ .

a
Zero element:
0
0
n
k
k
x
=
=

0
( ) 0
k
k = 0
i.e.,
H
n
is a vector space with vectors
0
n
k
k
k
a x
=

a
( )
0
n
k
k k
k
a b x
=
= +

0
n
k
k
k
ba x
=
=

i.e.,
( )
k
k
b ba = a
i.e.,
E.g.,
H
n
is isomorphic to P
n+1
with
( )
1
0
0
~ , ,
n
k n
k n n
k
a x a a
+
=
e e

P R
Inverse:
( )
0
n
k
k
k
a x
=

a
( )
k
k
a = a
i.e.,
( )
k
k
a = a
The k
th
component of a is
Example 1.9: Function Space
The set { f | f : N P } of all real valued functions of natural numbers
is a vector space if
( )( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
f f n f n f n + +
Vector addition:
( )( ) ( ) a f n n a f
Scalar multiplication:
neN
aeR
f ( n ) is a vector of countably infinite dimensions: f = ( f(0), f(1), f(2), f(3), )
E.g.,
( )
2
1 f n n = +
~
( ) 1, 2, 5, 10, = f
Zero element: ( ) 0 zero n =
Inverse:
( ) ( ) ( ) f n f n
Example 1.10: Space of All Real Polynomials, H
0
,
n
k
k k
k
a x a n
=


= e e
`

)

P R N
H is a vector space of countably infinite dimensions.
( )
0 1 2
0
~ , , ,
k
k
k
a x a a a

=
e e

P R
Example 1.11: Function Space
The set { f | f : P P } of all real valued functions of real numbers is a
vector space of uncountably infinite dimensions.
Example 13: Solution Space of a Linear Homogeneous Differential Equation
2
2
: 0
d f
S f f
d x

= + =
`
)
R R is a vector space with
( )( ) ( ) ( ) f g x f x g x + +
Vector addition:
( )( ) ( ) a f x x a f
Scalar multiplication:
Zero element: ( ) 0 zero x =
Inverse:
( ) ( ) ( ) f x f x
Closure:
2 2
2 2
0 & 0
d f d g
f g
d x d x
+ = + =
( )
( )
2
2
0
d a f bg
a f bg
d x
+
+ + =

aeR
Example 14: Solution Space of a System of Linear Homogeneous Equations
Remarks:
Definition of a mathematical structure is not unique.
The accepted version is time-tested to be most concise & elegant.
Lemma 1.16: Lose Ends
In any vector space V,
1. 0 v = 0 .
2. ( 1 ) v + v = 0 .
3. a 0 = 0 .
v eV and a e P.
Proof:
( ) 1 0 = = + 0 v v v v
0 = + v v v 0 = v
1.
2.
( ) ( ) 1 1 1 + = + v v v
0 = v = 0
3.
( ) 0 a a = 0 v ( ) 0 a = v
0 = v = 0
Exercises 2.I.1.
1. At this point the same is only an intuition, but nonetheless for
each vector space identify the k for which the space is the same as P
k
.
(a) The 23 matrices under the usual operations
(b) The n m matrices (under their usual operations)
(c) This set of 2 2 matrices
2.

(a) Prove that every point, line, or plane thru the origin in P
3
is a
vector space under the inherited operations.
(b) What if it doesnt contain the origin?
0
0
a
a b c
b c

| |

+ + =
`
|
\ .
)
I.2. Subspaces and Spanning Sets
Definition 2.1: Subspaces
For any vector space, a subspace is a subset that is itself a vector space,
under the inherited operations.
Example 2.2: Plane in P
3

0
x
P y x y z
z

| |

|
= + + =
`
|
|
\ .
)
is a subspace of P
3
.
Note: A subset of a vector space is a subspace iff it is closed under + & +.
It must contain 0. (c.f. Lemma 2.9.)
Proof: Let ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
, , , , ,
T T
x y z x y z P = = e r r

1 1 1 2 2 2
0 , 0 x y z x y z + + = + + =
( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
, ,
T
a b ax bx ay by az bz + = + + + r r
with
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2
ax bx ay by az bz a x y z b x y z + + + + + = + + + + +

1 2
a b P + e r r QED
, a b eR
0 =
Example 2.3: The x-axis in P
n
is a subspace.
( ) , 0, , 0 -axis
T
x x = e r Proof follows directly from the fact that
Example 2.4:
{ 0 } is a trivial subspace of P
n
.
P
n
is a subspace of P
n
.
Both are improper subspaces.
All other subspaces are proper.
Example 2.5: Subspace is only defined wrt inherited operations.
({1},+ ; P) is a vector space if we define 1+1 = 1 and a+1=1 aeP.
However, neither ({1},+ ; P) nor ({1},+ ; P) is a subspace of the vector space
(P,+ ; P).
Example 2.6: Polynomial Spaces.
H
n
is a proper subspace of H
m
if n < m.
Example 2.7: Solution Spaces.
The solution space of any real linear homogeneous ordinary
differential equation, A f = 0,
is a subspace of the function space of 1 variable { f : P P }.
Example 2.8: Violation of Closure.
P
+
is not a subspace of P since (1) v e P
+
ve P
+
.
Lemma 2.9:
Let S be a non-empty subset of a vector space ( V, + ; P ).
W.r.t. the inherited operations, the following statements are equivalent:
1. S is a subspace of V.
2. S is closed under all linear combinations of pairs of vectors.
3. S is closed under arbitrary linear combinations.
Proof: See Hefferon, p.93.
Remark: Vector space = Collection of linear combinations of vectors.
Example 2.11: Parametrization of a Plane in P
3
2 0
x
S y x y z
z

| |

|
= + =
`
|
|
\ .
)
is a 2-D subspace of P
3
.
2
,
y z
y y z
z

| |

|
= e
`
|
|
\ .
)
R
2 1
1 0 ,
0 1
y z y z

| | | |

| |
= + e
`
| |
| |
\ . \ .
)
R
i.e., S is the set of all linear combinations of 2 vectors (2,1,0)
T
, & (1,0,1)
T
.
Example 2.12: Parametrization of a Matrix Subspace.

0
0
a
L a b c
b c

| |
= + + =
`
|
\ .
)
is a subspace of the space of 22 matrices.
0
,
b c
b c
b c


| |
= e
`
|
\ .
)
R
1 0 1 0
,
1 0 0 1
b c b c


| | | |
= + e
`
| |
\ . \ .
)
R
Definition 2.13: Span
Let S = { s
1
, , s
n
| s
k
e ( V,+,P ) } be a set of n vectors in vector space V.
The span of S is the set of all linear combinations of the vectors in S, i.e.,
1
,
n
k k k k
k
span S c S c
=

= e e
`
)

s s R { } span C= 0
with
Lemma 2.15: The span of any subset of a vector space is a subspace.
Proof:
Let S = { s
1
, , s
n
| s
k
e ( V,+,P ) }
1 1
,
n n
k k k k
k k
u v span S
= =
= = e

u s v s
and

( )
1
n
k k k
k
a b au bv
=
= + = +

w u v s
1
n
k k
k
w span S
=
= e

s
, a b eR
QED
Converse: Any vector subspace is the span of a subset of its members.
Also: span S is the smallest vector space containing all members of S.
Example 2.16:
For any veV, span{v} = { a v | a eP } is a 1-D subspace.
Example 2.17:
Proof:
The problem is tantamount to showing that for all x, y eP, - unique a,b eP s.t.
1 1
1 1
x
a b
y
| | | | | |
= +
| | |

\ . \ . \ .
i.e.,
a b x
a b y
+ =
=
has a unique solution for arbitrary x & y.
Since
( )
1
2
a x y = + ( )
1
2
b x y = , x y eR QED
2
1 1
,
1 1
span

| | | |
=
`
| |

\ . \ .
)
R
Example 2.18: H
2

Let
{ }
2
3 , 2 S span x x x = ( )
{ }
2
3 2 , a x x bx a b = + eR
Question:
0
2
0
?
c
S
=
=P
Answer is yes since
1
3 2 c a b = + 2
c a =
2
a c = ( )
1
1
3
2
b c a =
and
( )
1 2
1
3
2
c c = +
2
1
k
k
k
c x
=

=
`
)

= subspace of H
2
?
Lesson: A vector space can be spanned by different sets of vectors.
Definition: Completeness
A subset S of a vector space V is complete if span S = V.
Example 2.19: All Possible Subspaces of P
3

See next section for proof.
Planes thru 0
Lines thru 0
Exercises 2.I.2
(a) Show that it is not a subspace of P
3
. (Hint. See Example 2.5).
(b) Show that it is a vector space.
( To save time, you need only prove axioms (d) & (j), and closure
under all linear combinations of 2 vectors.)
(c) Show that any subspace of P
3
must pass thru the origin, and so any
subspace of P
3
must involve zero in its description.
Does the converse hold?
Does any subset of P
3
that contains the origin become a subspace
when given the inherited operations?
1. Consider the set
1
x
y x y z
z

| |

|
+ + =
`
|
|
\ .
)
under these operations.
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 x x x x
y y y y
z z z z
+
| | | | | |
| | |
+ = +
| | |
| | |
+
\ . \ . \ .
1 x rx r
r y r y
z rz
+
| | | |
| |
=
| |
| |
\ . \ .
2. Because span of is an operation on sets we naturally consider how it
interacts with the usual set operations. Let [S] Span S.
(a) If S _ T are subsets of a vector space, is [S] _ [T] ?
Always? Sometimes? Never?
(b) If S, T are subsets of a vector space, is [ S T ] = [S] [T] ?
(c) If S, T are subsets of a vector space, is [ S T ] = [S] [T] ?
(d) Is the span of the complement equal to the complement of the span?
3. Find a structure that is closed under linear combinations, and yet is not
a vector space. (Remark. This is a bit of a trick question.)