MTH 253 Calculus (Other Topics) : Chapter 10 - Section 10.0

MTH 253
Calculus (Other Topics)

Chapter 10 Infinite Series

Section 10.0 Review of Methods for
Evaluating Limits
Copyright 2008 by Ron Wallace, all rights reserved.
Formal Definitions
lim ( )
x a
f x L
=
Means that for all c > 0 there exists
a o > 0 such that |f(x) L| < c
whenever 0<|x a| < o.
1 of 3
f(x)
L+c
L-c
f(x)
x a-o a+o
L
a
Formal Definitions
lim ( )
x
f x L
=
Means that for all c > 0 there exists
an N > 0 such that |f(x) L| < c
whenever x > N.
3 of 3
f(x)
L+c
L-c
f(x)
x N
L
Formal Definitions
lim ( )
x a
f x
=
Means that for all M > 0 there
exists a o > 0 such that f(x) > M
whenever 0<|x a| < o.
2 of 3
f(x)
f(x)
x a-o a+o
M
a
Intuitive Definitions
lim ( ) 0
x a
f x
=
Means that |f(x)| is really small
when x is close to a.
Is it +0 or 0?
lim ( )
x a
f x
=
Means that |f(x)| is really big
Is it + or ?
lim ( )
x a
f x L
=
Means that f(x) is really close to L
Is it a little more or a little less?
lim ( )
x a
f x DNE
=
Means that either the limit is
+, , or it bounces around
as x gets close to a.
Rule 1 Plug it In!
Calculate f(a). If there are no
problems, f(a) is the limit.
Possible problems?
Division by zero.
Even roots of negatives.
Evaluating a function at a value not in its
domain.
Indeterminate forms
0/0, /, 0 , - 1
, 0
0
,
0

lim ( )
x a
f x
Rule 2 Algebraic
Equivalences!
Simplify algebraically
Especially rational expressions
Add/subtract rational expressions
Long division w/ rational expressions
Rationalize numerator/denominator

lim ( )
x a
f x
Rule 3 Quotients
( )
lim
( )
x a
f x
g x
Case 1: f(x)m and g(x)n as xa & m=0, n=0

n
m
x g
x f
a x
=
) (
) (
lim
Case 2: f(x)0 and g(x)n as xa & n=0
0
) (
) (
lim =
x g
x f
a x
m over n
0 over n
Rule 3 Quotients
( )
lim
( )
x a
f x
g x
Case 4: f(x) and g(x)n as xa & n=0

Case 3: f(x)m and g(x)0 as xa & m=0
DNE or or
) (
) (
lim + =
x g
x f
a x
DNE or or
) (
) (
lim + =
x g
x f
a x
m over 0
over n
Rule 3 Quotients
( )
lim
( )
x a
f x
g x
Case 6: f(x) and g(x)0 as xa

Case 5: f(x)m and g(x) as xa & m=0
0
) (
) (
lim =
x g
x f
a x
DNE or or
) (
) (
lim + =
x g
x f
a x
m over
over 0
Rule 3 Quotients
( )
lim
( )
x a
f x
g x
Case 7: f(x)0 and g(x) as xa

0
) (
) (
lim =
x g
x f
a x
Case 8: f(x)0 and g(x)0 as xa or
f(x) and g(x) as xa
( ) '( )
lim lim
( ) '( )
x a x a
f x f x
g x g x

=
LHpitals
Rule
0 over
0 over 0
or
over
Rule 4 Other
Indeterminate Forms
Case 1: f(x)0 and g(x) as xa
1
( )
( )
lim ( ) ( ) lim
x a x a
g x
f x
f x g x

=
Case 2: f(x) and g(x) as xa
lim ( ) ( ) lim ( )
x a x a
f x g x h x

=
Then use
LHpitals Rule
i.e. Change
Algebraically
0 times
minus
Rule 4 Other
Indeterminate Forms
Case 3: f(x)1 and g(x) as xa or
f(x)0 and g(x)0 as xa or
f(x) and g(x)0 as xa
1
( )
ln( ( ))
lim
lim ( )ln( ( ))
( )
lim ( )
x a
g x
x a
f x
g x f x
g x
x a
f x e e

= =
Then use
LHpitals Rule
1
or 0
0
or
0

Rule 5 Limits of Rational
Functions as x
Case 1:
m < n

lim 0

m
n
x
ax
bx
+
=
+
Case 2:
m > n

lim

m
n
x
ax
bx
+
=
+
Case 3:
m = n

lim

m
n
x
ax a
bx b
+
=
+
Rule 6 Transcendental Functions
2
lim tan
x k
x
t
t

| |

|
\ .
= +
2
lim tan
x k
x
t
t
+
| |

|
\ .
=
( )
lim cot
x k
x
t t

=
( )
lim cot
x k
x
t t
+

= +
1 of 4
2
2
lim sec
x k
x
t
t

| |

|
\ .
= +
2
2
lim sec
x k
x
t
t
+
| |

|
\ .
=
2
lim sec
x k
x
t
t

| |

|
\ .
=
2
lim sec
x k
x
t
t
+
| |

|
\ .
= +
2 of 4
( )
0 2
lim csc
x k
x
t

=
( )
0 2
lim csc
x k
x
t
+

= +
( )
2
lim csc
x k
x
t t

= +
( )
2
lim csc
x k
x
t t
+

=
3 of 4
lim 0
x
x
e
= lim
x
x
e
= +
0
lim 1
x
x
e
=
0
limln
x
x
+
= limln
x
x
= +
1
limln 0
x
x
=
4 of 4
MTH 253

Section 10.1 Sequences
Primary Goal of this Chapter
How are values of transcendental functions
(and others) determined or approximated?
transcendental = non-algebraic
Algebraic Functions
All functions that can be expressed using a finite
number of elementary operations (+, , , , and
roots); along with their inverses.
Transcendental Functions include,
Trigonometric & inverses
Hyperbolic & inverses
Exponential & inverses (i.e. logarithms)
Other Uses of Infinite Series:
solve DEs, difficult Integrals, model physical laws
Express in
terms of
algebraic
functions?
Sequence
Formally:
A function whose domain is a set of integers.
Intuitively:
An ordered list of numbers (called terms).
The Domain:
Usually, the positive integers (can start anywhere).
Can be finite, however this chapter is only concerned
with infinite sequences and therefore sequence will
imply infinite sequence.
Sequence
A function whose domain
is the set of integers [n,).
Notation:
{ }
=1 n
n
a
Meaning:
... , , , ,
4 3 2 1
a a a a
Example:
{ } ... 7, 5, 3, 1, 1 2
1
=

= n
n
n can start anywhere and it is not required that a
n
has a formula
General
Term
... , ,
n
a
... , 1 2 , n
Sequence
A function whose domain
is the set of integers [n,).
How to determine the general term from a list of terms.
No simple well defined process.
Pattern recognition.
Check your hypothesis.
Useful Tips (assume n starts at 1):
integers starting at k = n+(k-1)
evens = 2n
odds = 2n-1
alternating signs (1
st
positive): (-1)
n+1

alternating signs (1
st
negative): (-1)
n

Sequences
Examples: Finding the general term
from a list of terms.
- - - ,
6
8
,
5
6
,
4
4
,
3
2
- - -
+
,
2
2
,
n
n
- - - ,
27
1
,
9
1
,
3
1
, 1 - - -
,
3
1
,
1 n
- - - ,
19
24
,
15
6
,
11
2
,
7
1
- - -
+

,
3 4
!
) 1 ( ,
1
n
n
n
Sequences
One More Example ...................
- - - = , 5 , 3 , 1
- - - = , 27 , 9 , 1 , 5 , 5 , 3 , 1
=
)
`
+
1
3 2
3
6 5 3
n
n n n
Find the first three terms of the sequence ...
What does this imply? ODD Integers!
Careful, dont jump to conclusions to quickly!
Graphing Sequences
Domain?
Integers in the interval [a,).
Graph?
Disconnected set of points (i.e. not continuous)
Related continuous Function?
Replace n with x and use all points in the
interival [a,) for the domain.
1
2
Example: Graph
2
n
n
n
=

`
+
)
Limit of a Sequence
{ }
=1 n
n
a
Given:
lim
n
n
a
Find:
With sequences n e Z
+

and a
n
is not continuous,
therefore the limit
definition must be
modified.
lim ( ) 0 0
such that ( ) if .
x
f x L N
f x L x N
c
c
= > - >
< >
Limit definition
for x and
f(x) a continuous
function.
Limit of a Sequence
{ }
=1 n
n
a
Given:
lim
n
n
a
Find:
lim 0 an integer 0
such that if .
n
x
n
a L N
a L n N
c
c
= > - >
< >
Limit definition
for n and
{a
n
} a sequence.
L
L+e
Le
1 2 3 4 N
Limit Theorems for Sequences
Just like
functions!
lim
n
c c
=
lim lim
n n
n n
ca c a

=
lim( ) lim lim
n n n n
n n n
a b a b

=
lim( ) lim lim
n n n n
n n n
a b a b

=
lim( ) lim lim if lim 0
n n n n n
n n n n
a b a b b

= =
Also, all methods of
limit evaluation for
functions, applies to
sequences.
Converges limit exists Diverges limit does not exist
NOTE: Alternating
sequences can only
converge to 0.
Why?
Defining Sequences Recursively
Each term is determined in terms of one or more previous terms.
1 1
( )
n n
x k x f x
+
= =
1 1 2 2 1 1
( , )
n n n
x k x k x f x x
+
= = =
OR
OR
whatever
Fibonacci Sequence:
1 2 1 1
1 1
n n n
x x x x x
+
= = = +
MTH 253

Section 10.2 Monotone Sequences
Does the sequence converge?
What a sequence converges to is not
always important, but does it
converge to something?
This Section:
Determining if a sequence
converges without finding the
actual limit.
Terminology
{ }
1
n
n
a

=
1
Strictly Increasing: , for all
n n
a a n
+
<
1
Strictly Decreasing: , for all
n n
a a n
+
>
1
Increasing: , for all
n n
a a n
+
s
1
Decreasing: , for all
n n
a a n
+
>
Monotone Increasing OR Decreasing
Strictly Monotone Strictly Increasing OR Decreasing
How would you describe ?
{ }
1
5
n
=
Is (strictly) monotone? { }
1
n
n
a

=
Two Tests
Difference Between Terms
1
1
1
1
0 strictly inc.
0 strictly dec.
0 increasing
0 decreasing
n n
n n
n n
n n
a a
a a
a a
a a
+
+
+
+
>
<
>
s
Ratio of Successive Terms
1
1
1
1
1 strictly inc.
1 strictly dec.
1 increasing
1 decreasing
n n
n n
n n
n n
a a
a a
a a
a a
+
+
+
+
>
<
>
s
1
1
Determine the Behavior of 1
n
n
`
)
(use both methods)
Is (strictly) monotone? { }
1
n
n
a

=
A Third Test using Derivatives
'( ) 0 strictly inc.
'( ) 0 strictly dec.
'( ) 0 increasing
'( ) 0 decreasing
f x
f x
f x
f x
>
<
>
s
1
1
Determine the Behavior of 1
n
n
`
)
Let ( ) be any function
where 1 and ( )
whenever .
n
f x
x f x a
x n
> =
=
Properties that Hold Eventually
If a finite number of the terms from the beginning of a
sequence are discarded and the resulting sequence
has a property, then the original sequence has that
property eventually.
Example
2 3 4 3
5, 2, 9, 3, , , ,..., ,...
3 4 5 2
n
n
What can be
said about:
The sequence is eventually strictly increasing.
(discard the first 4 terms)
Convergence of Monotone Sequences
If a sequence is eventually increasing, then
there are two possibilities:
1. - M (upper bound) where all a
n
s M and the
sequence converges to a value L s M.
2. No upper bound and the sequence approaches
infinity as n.
Note: In the first case, finding M guarantees
convergence without the need to find L.
If a sequence is eventually decreasing, then
there are two possibilities:
1. - M (lower bound) where all a
n
> M and the
sequence converges to a value L > M.
2. No lower bound and the sequence approaches
negative infinity as n.
Note: In the first case, finding M guarantees
convergence without the need to find L.
Examples
2
!
n
n

`
)
Eventually decreasing and
always positive. (why?)
Therefore it converges. (why?)
2
1 n
n

`
)
Eventually increasing but no
upper bound. (why?)
Therefore it diverges. (why?)
MTH 253

Section 10.3 Infinite Series
Sums of the Terms of a Sequence
1
3
10
n
n
=

=
`
)
0.3, 0.03, 0.003, 0.0003, ...
Adding these terms gives
1
0.3333...
3
=
1
9
10
n
n
=

`
)
What would be the sum of the terms of ?
Infinite Series
The sum of the terms of a sequence is called an
infinite series.
Notation:
1 2 3 4
1
...
k
k
u u u u u
=
= + + + +
NOTES:
u
k
is some function of k whose domain is a set of integers.
k can start anywhere (0 or 1 is the most common)
Partial Sums of an Infinite Series
1 2 3 4
1
...
k
k
u u u u u
=
= + + + +
2 1 2
s u u = +
3 1 2 3
s u u u = + +
1 2 3
1
...
n
n n k
k
s u u u u u
=
= + + + + =
1 1
s u =
{ }
1
n
n
s

=
Sequence of
partial sums.

Converging/Diverging Series
1 2 3 4
1
...
k
k
u u u u u
=
= + + + +
{ }
1
n
n
s

=
If converges to
, S
then the series converges and
1
k
k
u S
=
=
If the sequence of partial sums diverges,

then so does the series (it has no sum).
S is not often easy or even possible to determine!
Geometric Series
Each term is obtained by multiplying the proceeding
term by a fixed constant.
2 3
0
...
k
k
ar a ar ar ar
=
= + + + +
Example:
1 2
1
0
3 3 3 1 3 1
...
10 10 10 10 10 10
k
k
+
=
| | | |
= + + +
| |
\ . \ .
NOTE: w/ geometric series, k usually starts with 0 (not required)

3
10
a =
1
10
r =
Geometric Series
Under what conditions does a geometric series converge?
0
k
k
ar
Case 1a: r = 1
0 0
...

k
k k
n
ar a a a a
s

= =
= = + + +
=

( 1) a n +
lim
n
n
s
=

Divergent!
Geometric Series
0
k
k
ar
Case 1b: r = -1
0 0
...

k
k k
n
ar a a a a
s

= =
= = +
=

, if is even
0, if is odd
a n
n
lim
n
n
s
=
DNE
Divergent!
Geometric Series
0
k
k
ar
Case 2: |r| = 1
2 3
...
n
n
s a ar ar ar ar = + + + + +
2 3 4 1
...
n
n
rs ar ar ar ar ar
+
= + + + + +
1 n
n n
s rs a ar
+
=
times
r
subtract
1
1
(1 )
1 1
n
n
n
a ar a
s r
r r
+
+
= =

Geometric Series
0
k
k
ar
Case 2: |r| = 1
Convergent if |r| < 1; Divergent Otherwise
1
1
(1 )
1 1
n
n
n
a ar a
s r
r r
+
+
= =

lim
n
n
s
=
, if 1
1
, if 1
a
r
r
r
<
>
The Harmonic Series

1
1 1 1 1
1 ...
2 3 4
k
k
=
= + + + +
1
2 1
3 2
1
1
1
2
1
3

1
n n
s
s s
s s
s s
n
=
= +
= +
---
= +
{ }
1
n
n
s

=
is a strictly increasing sequence
Converges if there is an upper bound.
The Harmonic Series
1
1 1 1 1
1 ...
2 3 4
k
k
=
= + + + +
2
2
4 2 2
2
2
1 1 1 2
1
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 3
3 4 4 4 2

1
2
n
s
s s s s
n
s
= + > + =
= = + + > + + =
---
+
>
Diverges because there is no possible upper bound.
1
2
n
M
+
>
Since for any
possible upper
bound M, you
can find an n
where
MTH 253

Section 10.4 Convergence Tests
Does the Series Converge?
1
k
k
u
The next three sections:

8 Tests for Convergence
Divergence Test
Integral Test
p-Series Test
Comparison Test
Limit Comparison Test
Ratio Test
Root Test
Alternating Series Test
Each test has it limitations (i.e. conditions where the test fails).
The test
tells you
nothing!
Algebraic Properties of Infinite Series
1
k
k
u
1
k
k
v
=
If are convergent
then
1 1 1
( )
k k k k
k k k
u v u v

= = =
=

are convergent.
&
NOTE: p q does NOT imply that q p or ~p ~q.
0 c = If
then
1 1 1
&
k k k
k k k
u cu c u

= = =
=

are both convergent or both divergent.
0 K > If
then
1
&
k k
k k K
u u

= =

are both convergent or both divergent.
That is, a finite number of
terms can be removed from a
series without affecting its
convergence or divergence.
k k b k b
k a k a b k a b
u u u

+
= = + =
= =

Example:
Change of Index
1 5
5
!
k k
k
k

= =
=

5( 4)
( 4)!
k
k
0 k
=
=
5( 1)
( 1)!
k
k
+
+
NOTE
Since
1
&
k k
k k K
u u

= =

will both converge or diverge,
k
u
will be used to represent an infinite series.

If there is more then one series, it will be assumed that
they all start at the same beginning value of the index.
Simplifying the
Notation!
u
k
is the k
th
term
s
k
is the k
th
partial sum
The Divergence Test
NOTE: p q does imply that ~q ~p.
If lim 0, then diverges.
k k
k
u u
=

If converges, then lim 0.
k k
k
u u
Proof
1 k k k
u s s

=
1 1
lim lim( ) lim lim 0
k k k k k
k k k k
u s s s s S S

= = = =
The Divergence Test:
The Divergence Test: Examples
If lim 0, then diverges.
k k
k
u u

+
3
1 2
k
k
=
+

3
1 2
lim
k
k
k
2 Divergent!
k
k
2
2
=

k
k
k
2
2
lim
Test Fails!
0
=

2 ln 2
2
lim
k
k
REMEMBER: p q does NOT imply that ~p ~q.
The Integral Test
Let f(x) be a decreasing continuous function over [a,) such
that f(k)=u
k
for all k > a.
k
u
1 2 3 5 4 7 6
u
3

u
2

u
1

.
.
.
f(x)
1 2 3 5 4 7 6
u
3

u
2

u
1

.
.
.
f(x)
u
2
u
3
u
4
u
5
u
6
u
7

u
1
u
2
u
3
u
4
u
5
u
6

+ =
>

1
) (
a
a k
k
u dx x f
If the Integral
converges, so
does the series.
Upper bound for an increasing
sequence of partial sums.

=
s

) (
a
a k
k
u dx x f
If the Integral
diverges, so does
the series.
NO upper bound for an increasing
sequence of partial sums.
The Integral Test: Examples
+
2
1 k
k
=
+
dx
x
x

1

1
2
=
2

2
ln
2
1

1
2
1
u dx
u
+
2 3
) 2 4 (
1
k
=
+
dx
x

) 2 4 (
1
1
2 3
6
1 1

1
2
1
6
2 1

6
2 3
=
u
dx
u
Divergent!
Convergent!
When does this test fail? When it cant be integrated?
p-Series
p
k
1
p=1
p=2
p=1/2
...
3
1
2
1
1
1 1
+ + + =
k
The divergent
harmonic series.
...
9
1
4
1
1
1 1
2
+ + + =
k
...
3
1
2
1
1
1 1 1
2 1
+ + + = =

k
k
p-Series
p
k
1
For p s 0
Divergent (divergence test) if p s 0
1
p q
p
k k
k
= =

Note: -p = q > 0
lim
q
k
k
=
p-Series
p
k
1

1
1
p
x
For p 1 and p > 0

p p
b
p
x
x
p
b
p
p
1
1
1
lim
1
1
1
1

1
Convergent if p > 1
Divergent if 0 < p s 1
MTH 253

Section 10.5 The Comparison,
Ratio,
and Root Tests
1
k
k
u

Divergence Test
Integral Test
p-Series Test
Comparison Test
Ratio Test
Root Test
The test
tells you
nothing!
10.4
10.5
The Comparison Test
Basic Idea:
If you can show that a first series is less
than a second series, and the second
series is know to be convergent, then so
is the first series (s
n
increasing w/ upper bound).

If you can show that a first series is
greater than a second series, and the
second series is divergent, then so is the
first series (s
n
increasing wo/ upper bound).
k k
a b s

k k
a b >

Difficult Part? Finding the series to compare.
Using the Comparison Test
1. Make an educated guess.
convergent or divergent?
2. Find a series and prove your guess.
usually similar to the original
Helpful Ideas:
Increasing the numerator or decreasing the
denominator gives something bigger.
Decreasing the numerator or increasing the
denominator gives something smaller.
Examples w/ the Comparison Test
1
9 6 k +
1 1 1
9 6 9 k k k
< <
+
Smaller than the divergent harmonic series
NOTHING!
4
2
k k +
4 4 4
2 2 1
2
k k k k
< = -
+
Smaller than twice a convergent p-series Convergent
2
1 k
k k
+
2 2 2
1 1 k k k
k k k k k k
+
> > =

Larger than the divergent harmonic series Divergent
The Limit Comparison Test
Basic Idea:
If two series essentially differ by a constant
(except for possibly the first finite number of terms),
then they have the same behavior.
lim 0 and finite
k
k
k
a
b
>
Difficult Part? Finding the series to compare.
Example w/ the Limit Comparison Test
1
9 6 k +
1 1 1
9 6 9 k k k
< <
+
Smaller than the divergent harmonic series
NOTHING!
Comparison Test Fails!
1 9 6
lim lim 9
1 9 6
k k
k k
k k

+
= =
+
Therefore, same behavior Divergent!
The Ratio Test
1
Let: lim
k
k
k
u
L
u
+
=

1
where
k
k
u
r r L k K
u
c
+
< > + >
2
1 1 1
...
k
k k k
u ru r u r u
+
< < <
1 1
k
k
u r u
+
<

Geometric Series!
Convergent if |r|<1
Comparison Test If L < 1, the series converges.
The Ratio Test
1
Let: lim
k
k
k
u
L
u
+
=

1
where
k
k
u
s s L k K
u
c
+
> < + >
2
1 1 1
...
k
k k k
u su s u s u
+
> > >
1 1
k
k
u s u
+
>

Geometric Series!
Divergent if |s|>1
Comparison Test If L > 1, the series diverges.
The Ratio Test
1
Let: lim 1
k
k
k
u
L
u
+
= =
If L=1, the test fails!
1
diverges
k
1 ( 1)
lim lim 1
1 1
k k
k k
k k

+
= =
+
2
1
converges
k
2 2
2 2
1 ( 1)
lim lim 1
1 2 1
k k
k k
k k k

+
= =
+ +
The Ratio Test
1
Let: lim
k
k
k
u
L
u
+
=
Given where 0
k k
u u k >
If L < 1, the series converges.

If L > 1, the series diverges.
If L = 1, the test fails.
Example w/ the Ratio Test
1
1 2 2 2
2 2
2
4
4 4 ( 1)
lim lim lim 4 1
4 ( 1) 4 2 1
k
k
k k
k k k
k k k
k k k
k
+
+

+
= - = = >
+ + +
2
4
k
k
Divergent!
The Root Test
Let: lim
k
k
k
u L
=
Given where 0
k k
u u k >
If L < 1, the series converges.

Proof is similar to the ratio test!
Example w/ the Root Test
1 1 1
lim lim 1
2 2 2
k
k k
k
k k
e e

| |

= = <
|
\ .
1
2
k
k
e
| |
|
\ .
Convergent!
MTH 253

Section 10.6 Alternating Series;
Conditional
Convergence
1
k
k
u

Divergence Test
Integral Test
p-Series Test
Comparison Test
Ratio Test
Root Test
The test
tells you
nothing!
10.4
10.5
10.6
Series
with
positive
terms!
Alternating Series
1
1 2 3 4
( 1)
k
k
a a a a a
+
= + +
1 2 3 4
( 1)
k
k
a a a a a = + +
OR
NOTE: All a
k
s are assumed to be positive.
The Alternating Series Test
1
1 2 3 4
( 1)
k
k
a a a a a
+
= + +
1 2 3 4
( 1)
k
k
a a a a a = + +
OR
Converges if
1
1.
k k
a a k
+
>
k
2. lim 0
k
a
=
The Alternating Series Test
1
1 2 3 4
( 1)
k
k
a a a a a
+
= + +
Converges if
1
1.
k k
a a k
+
>
k
2. lim 0
k
a
=
2 1
2 1
increasing and bounded
decreasing and bounded
lim
lim 0
n
n
n
n
s a
s
<
>
{ }
{ }
2
2 1
n E
n O
s S
s S
2 1 2 2
Since:
n n n
s s a
= +
2 1 2 2
lim lim( ) 0
O n n n E E
n n
S s s a S S

= = + = + =
Therefore, under these conditions, the alternating series converges.
Proof:
Example of the Alternating Series Test
1
ln
( 1)
k
k
k
+
Decreasing?
2 2
ln (1/ ) ln 1 ln
0 when 3
d x x x x x
x
dx x x x

= = < >

Limit?
ln 1/
lim lim 0
1
k k
k k
k

= =
Therefore, convergent.
Approximating Alternating Series
If an alternating series satisfies the
conditions of the alternating series test, and
s
n
is used to approximate the sum; then
1 n n
S s a
+
<
i.e. The error is less than the first term omitted.
Example:
1. Estimate the error if 4 terms are used to
approximate the sum.
1
1
( 1)
!
k
k
k
+
5 1
( 1) 1
.008333
5! 120
+
= ~
Example: 1
1
( 1)
!
k
k
k
+
2. How many terms are need to make sure the

error is less than 0.01?
( 1) 1
( 1)
0.01
( 1)!
n
n
+ +
<
+
1
.041666
4!
1
.008333
5!
~
~
1
0.01
( 1)! n
<
+
Therefore,
four terms
are needed!
Absolute Convergence
k
u
converges absolutely if
k
u
is convergent.
Otherwise, it diverges absolutely.
Absolute Convergence: Example 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
k
u = + + + +
1
1
2
k
k
u
=

Convergent geometric series,
therefore the first series
converges absolutely.
Absolute Convergence: Example 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
2 3 4 6 7 8 9
k
u = + + + +
1
k
u
k
=

Divergent harmonic series,
diverges absolutely.
NOTE: The first series IS a CONVERGENT alternating series.
Absolute Convergence Theorem
If a series converges absolutely, then
it converges.
Proof:
( ) ( )
k k k k k k k
u u u u u u u

= + = +

convergent
0 or 2
2 2
k k k
k k k k
u u u
u u u u
+ =
+ s =

convergent
Therefore, by the comparison test, the series converges.
Absolute Convergence Theorem: Example
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
k
u = + + + +
1
1
2
k
k
u
=

Convergent geometric series,
converges absolutely.
Therefore, the original series converges.
NOTE: If it does not converge absolutely, the test fails!
Conditional Convergence
If a convergent series diverges absolutely,
it is said to be conditionally convergent.
Example:
1
1
( 1)
k
k
+
Convergent alternating series.

1
1 1
( 1)
k
k k
+
=

Divergent harmonic series.
Therefore, the first series is Conditionally Convergent.
Ratio Test for Absolute Convergence
1
Let: lim
k
k
k
u
L
u
+
=
Given
k
u
If L < 1, the series converges absolutely.

NOTE: A summary of all of the convergence tests is given on page 672.
MTH 253

Section 10.7 Maclaurin and Taylor
Polynomials
Local Linear Approximations
Review of
Section 3.8
Find a linear equation that approximates a function around
a point given the derivative of the function at that point.
Tangent Line
f(x)
0
x
( )
0
x f
0
Slope: '( ) m f x =
( )
0 0
Point: , ( ) x f x
0 0 0
( ) '( )( ) y f x f x x x = +
f(x)
0
x
( )
0
x f
Local Quadratic Approximations
Find a quadratic equation that approximates a function
around a point given the first & second derivatives of the
function at that point.
2
0
0 0 0 0
''( )
( ) '( )( ) ( )
2
f x
y f x f x x x x x = + +
2
0 0
( ) ( ) y a b x x c x x = + +
0
' 2 ( ) y b c x x = +
'' 2 y c =
0 0
( ) ( ) y x f x =
0 0
'( ) '( ) y x f x =
0 0
''( ) ''( ) y x f x =
a =
b =
2c =
Local Cubic Approximations
Find a Cubic equation that approximates a function
around a point given the first, second, and third derivatives
of the function at that point.
2 3
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
''( ) '''( )
( ) '( )( ) ( ) ( )
2 6
f x f x
y f x f x x x x x x x = + + +
0 0
( ) ( ) y x f x =
0 0
'( ) '( ) y x f x =
0 0
''( ) ''( ) y x f x =
0 0
'''( ) '''( ) y x f x =
f(x)
0
x
( )
0
x f
f(x)
0
x
( )
0
x f
Local Cubic Approximations
Find a Cubic equation that approximates a function
around a point given the first, second, and third derivatives
of the function at that point.
2 3
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
( ) '( ) ''( ) '''( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0! 1! 2! 3!
f x f x f x f x
y x x x x x x = + + +
0 0
( ) ( ) y x f x =
0 0
'( ) '( ) y x f x =
0 0
''( ) ''( ) y x f x =
0 0
'''( ) '''( ) y x f x =
Example
Find the Linear, Quadratic, and Cubic equations that
approximate the above function around x
0
= 1.
1
( ) tan f x x
=
(1) 4 f t =
2
1
'( )
1
f x
x
=
+
1
'(1)
2
f =
2 2
2
''( )
(1 )
x
f x
x
=
+
1
''(1)
2
f =
2
2 3
6 2
'''( )
(1 )
x
f x
x
=
+
1
'''( )
2
f x =
1
( 1)
4 2
y x
t
= +
2
1 1
( 1) ( 1)
4 2 4
y x x
t
= +
2 3
1 1 1
( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
4 2 4 12
y x x x
t
= + +
1
( ) tan f x x
=
Example
Find the Linear, Quadratic, and Cubic equations that
approximate the above function around x
0
= 1.
1
( 1)
4 2
y x
t
= +
2
1 1
( 1) ( 1)
4 2 4
y x x
t
= +
2 3
1 1 1
( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
4 2 4 12
y x x x
t
= + +
1
( ) tan f x x
=
Taylor Polynomials
If f(x) can be differentiated n times at x
0
, then
the n
th
Taylor Polynomial for f(x) about x = x
0
is
( )
0
0
0
( )
( ) ( )
!
k
n
k
n
k
f x
p x x x
k
=
=
2
0 0 0
0 0
( )
3
0 0
0 0
( ) '( ) ''( )
( ) ( )
0! 1! 2!
'''( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3! !
n
n
f x f x f x
x x x x
f x f x
x x x x
n
= + +
+ + +
Maclaurin Polynomials
A Taylor Polynomial where x
0
= 0.
( )
0
(0)
( )
!
k
n
k
n
k
f
p x x
k
=
=
2
( )
3
(0) '(0) ''(0)
0! 1! 2!
'''(0) (0)

3! !
n
n
f f f
x x
f f
x x
n
= + +
+ + +
Find the n
th
Maclaurin Polynomial for e
x
.
0
( )
!
k
n
n
k
x
p x
k
=
=
2 3
1
2! 3! !
n
x x x
x
n
= + + + + +
Example
0
0
1
n
x x
n
x
x
d
e e
dx
=
=

= =

Using the first 7 terms
with x=1 gives an
approximation for e
2 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1
1 1
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2.7180555
2 6 24 120 720
e ~ + + + + + +
= + + + + + + =
Find the n
th
Maclaurin Polynomials for sin x & cos x.
2 1
0
( 1)
(2 1)!
k
n
k
k
x
k
+
=
=
+
3 5 2 1
2 1
( ) ( 1)
3! 5! (2 1)!
n
n
n
x x x
p x x
n
+
+
= + +
+
Examples
( ) sin f x x =
( ) cos f x x =
2
0
( 1)
(2 )!
k
n
k
k
x
k
=
=
2 4 2
2
( ) 1 ( 1)
2! 4! (2 )!
n
n
n
x x x
p x
n
= + +
The n
th
Remainder
If ( ) is used to approximate ( ),
then ( ) ( ) is th ( ) e remainde . r
n
t
n
h
n
p x f x
f x n p R x x =
Remainder Estimation
1
0
( )
( 1)!
n
n
M
R x x x
n
+
s
+
( 1)
0
( )
[ , ]
n
M f x
x x x
+
>
e
Where:
The n
th
Remainder
6 1
4
6
3
( ) 1 0 5.95 10
(6 1)!
R x
+

s ~
+
Example
Earlier, e was approximated (2.7180555) with a
Maclaurin polynomial with n = 6, x
0
= 0, and x = 1.
( 1)
[0,1] [0,1]
max ( ) max 3
n x
f x e e M
+
= = < =
Actual error is about 2.26x10
-4
.
MTH 253

Section 10.8 Maclaurin and Taylor
Series; Power Series
Taylor & Maclaurin Polynomials
From 10.9
( )
0
0
0
( )
( ) ( )
!
k
n
k
n
k
f x
p x x x
k
=
=
2
0
0 0 0 0
(3) ( )
3
0 0
0 0
''( )
( ) '( )( ) ( )
2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
6 !
n
n
f x
f x f x x x x x
f x f x
x x x x
n
= + +
+ + +
Taylor vs. Maclaurin? Maclaurin x
0
= 0
Taylor & Maclaurin Series
( )
0
0
0
( )
( ) ( )
!
k
k
n
k
f x
p x x x
k
=
=
2
0
0 0 0 0
(3) ( )
3
0 0
0 0
''( )
( ) '( )( ) ( )
2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
6 !
n
n
f x
f x f x x x x x
f x f x
x x x x
n
= + +
+ + + +
Maclaurin
x
0
= 0
NOTE: This assumes that f
(n)
(x
0
) exists for all n.
Power Series
2 3
0 1 2 3
n
n
c c x c x c x c x = + + + + + +
NOTE: Every Maclaurin series is a power series.
0
k
k
k
c x
where, each c
k
is a constant.
Convergence Power Series
0
k
k
k
c x
convergent?
For what values of x is
Is there a value of x for which
any power series is convergent?
Yes: 0 x =
0
(0)
k
k
k
c
=
=
0
c
Convergence Power Series
0
k
k
k
c x
convergent?
For any power series, one of the following will be true:
a. The series only converges when x = 0.
b. The series converges absolutely for all real values of x.
c. The series converges absolutely for all x e (-R, R) and
diverges when x > R or x < -R. The behavior a x = R
can vary.
R is called the Radius
of Convergence.
(-R,R) or [-R,R] or (-R,R] or [-R,R) is
called the Interval of Convergence.
Power Series: Example
1
( )
1
f x
x
=
and determine
its interval of
convergence.
Find the power
series for
( )
1
0
( ) 1 1
x
f x x

=
= =
( )
4
(3)
0
( ) 2 3 1 3!
x
f x x

=
= =
( )
2
0
'( ) 1 1
x
f x x

=
= =
( )
5
(4)
0
( ) 2 3 4 1 4!
x
f x x

=
= =
( )
3
0
''( ) 2 1 2
x
f x x

=
= =
( )
( 1)
( )
0
( ) ! 1 !
n
n
x
f x n x n
+
=
= =
Power Series: Example
1
( )
1
f x
x
=
and determine
its interval of
convergence.?
Find the power
series for
( )
( 1)
( )
0
( ) ! 1 !
n
n
x
f x n x n
+
=
= =
0
1
1
k
k
x
x
=
=

1
Ratio Test:
lim 1
Divergent if 1 (Why?)
k
k
k
x
x
x
x
+
= <
=
Interval of Convergence is ( 1,1).
Power Series in xx
0

0
0
( )
k
k
k
c x x
2 3
0 1 0 2 0 3 0
0
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
n
n
c c x x c x x c x x
c x x
= + + +
+ + +
NOTE: Every Taylor series is a power series in x-x
0
.
where, each c
k
is a constant.
Convergence Power Series in x-x
0

0
0
( )
k
k
k
c x x
convergent?
For any power series, one of the following will be true:
a. The series only converges when x = x
0
.
b. The series converges absolutely for all real values of x.
c. The series converges absolutely for all x e (x
0
-R, x
0
+R)
and diverges when x > x
0
+R or x < x
0
-R. The behavior
a x = x
0
R can vary.
R is called the Radius
of Convergence.
The set of all values of convergence is
called the Interval of Convergence.
MTH 253

Section 10.9 Convergence of
Taylor Series
Question
Is there an open interval about x
0
such that
( )
0
0
0
( )
( ) ( )
!
k
k
k
f x
f x x x
k
=
=
Yes for all x where

0
lim ( ) 0
n
n
R x
=
This limit is often difficult to determine!
One way to prove
0
lim ( ) 0
n
n
R x
=
Use the nth Remainder Estimate and the Squeeze Theorem
Example, show that
0
!
k
x
k
x
e
k
=
=
1
3
0 ( )
( 1)!
n
n
x
R x
n
+
s s
+
1
0
0 ( )
( 1)!
n
n
M
R x x x
n
+
s s
+
( 1)
[ , ]
( )
o
n
x x
M f x
+
>
1
3 3 3 3
lim lim lim lim lim 0 0
( 1)! ! 1 ! 1 !
n n n n
n n n n n
x x x x x x
n n n n n n
+

= - = - = - =
+ + +
0
lim ( ) 0
n
n
R x x
=
Some important Maclaurin Series
See the list on page 701.
Some things to note:
Dont forget to consider the interval of convergence.
Some converge quickly (esp. w/ n! involved).
Some converge slowly (e.g. ln(1+x)).
MTH 253
Section 10.10 Differentiating and
Integrating
Power Series;
Modeling with Taylor Series
Differentiating Power Series
0 0 0
1
If ( ) ( ) converges over ( , )
k
k
k
f x c x x x R x R
=
= +
( )
0 0 0
1
then '( ) ( ) over ( , )
k
k
k
d
f x c x x x R x R
dx
=
= +
Examples: Consider Maclaurin series for sinx, cosx, and e

x
.
Integrating Power Series
0 0 0
1
If ( ) ( ) converges over ( , )
k
k
k
f x c x x x R x R
=
= +
( )
0 0 0
1
then ( ) ( ) over ( , )
k
k
k
f x c x x dx x R x R
=
= +

Examples: Consider Maclaurin series for sinx, cosx, and e
x
.
( ) 0
1
0 0
and ( ) ( )
where & are in ( , )
b b
k
k
a a
k
f x c x x dx
a b x R x R
=
=
+

Determining Taylor/Maclaurin Series
Use Differentiation, Integration,
Substitution, Multiplication, Addition, etc.
Example 1
2 3
1
1
1
x x x
x
= + + + +
let x = -x
2

2 4 6
2
1
1
1
x x x
x
= + +
+
integrate
3 5 7
1
tan
3 5 7
x x x
x x
= + +
Much easier than finding a general formula for
the n
th
derivative of the tan
-1
x function.
Determining Taylor/Maclaurin Series
Use Differentiation, Integration,
Substitution, Multiplication, Addition, etc.
Example 2
2 3 4
1
2 6 24
x
x x x
e x = + + + +
2 4
cos 1
2 24
x x
x = +
Multiply
3 4
cos 1
3 6
x
x x
e x x = + +
Much easier than finding derivatives e
x
cosx try it?
MTH 253

Tests for Convergence Virtual Flash Cards
The Limit of Partial Sums
The series converges if
and diverges otherwise.
1 2
1

n
n k n
k
s a a a a
=
= = + + +
lim
n
n
s L
= =
Divergence Test
The series diverges if
otherwise, the test fails.
lim 0
k
k
a
=
Geometric Series Test
The series converges if |r| < 1
If it converges, then
0

k
k
ar
If the series is
of the form
0

1
k
k
a
ar
r
=
=
P-Series Test
The series converges if p > 1
1
1

p
k
k
If the series is
of the form
Integral Test
The integral and series have the
same behavior.
If the integral converges, so does the series.
If the integral diverges, so does the series.
( ) when
k
f x a x k = =

1
( ) f x dx
Comparison Test
If
and
converges, then
they both converge.
If
and
diverges, then
they both diverge.

1 1

k k
k k
a b

s

1
k
k
b
1 1

k k
k k
a b

>

1
k
k
b

Given a series
If
then both series have the same behavior.
Either they both converge or they both diverge.
lim 0 and finite
k
k
k
a
b
>
1
k
k
b
Ratio Test
If
then
If L < 1 the series converges.
If L > 1 the series diverges.
If L = 1 the test fails.
1
lim
k
k
k
a
L
a
+
=
Root Test
If
then
If L < 1 the series converges.
If L > 1 the series diverges.
If L = 1 the test fails.
lim
k
k
k
a L
=
If
then the series converges, otherwise it diverges.
0
( 1) where 0
k
k k
k
a a k
=
>
For a series of
the form
1 k k
a a
+
>
lim 0
k
k
a
=
and
Absolute Convergence Test
If converges,
then so does the series. Otherwise the test fails.
0

k
k
a
Absolute Convergence
If converges,
then converges absolutely.
0

k
k
a
0

k
k
a
Absolute Divergence
If diverges,
then diverges absolutely.
0

k
k
a
0

k
k
a
Conditional Convergence
If diverges and converges,
then converges conditionally.
0

k
k
a
0

k
k
a
0

k
k
a

MTH 253 Calculus (Other Topics) : Chapter 10 - Section 10.0

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

MTH 253 Calculus (Other Topics) : Chapter 10 - Section 10.0

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

MTH 253

Calculus (Other Topics)

Case 1: f(x)m and g(x)n as xa & m=0, n=0

Case 4: f(x) and g(x)n as xa & n=0

Case 6: f(x) and g(x)0 as xa

Case 7: f(x)0 and g(x) as xa

If the sequence of partial sums diverges,

NOTE: w/ geometric series, k usually starts with 0 (not required)

The Harmonic Series

The next three sections:

will be used to represent an infinite series.

For p 1 and p > 0

8 Tests for Convergence

If L < 1, the series converges.

If L < 1, the series converges.

8 Tests for Convergence

2. How many terms are need to make sure the

Convergent alternating series.

If L < 1, the series converges absolutely.

Yes for all x where

Examples: Consider Maclaurin series for sinx, cosx, and e

Limit Comparison Test

Вам также может понравиться