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EFFICIENCY OF MANUFACTURING
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AUTOMATION
any means of helping the workers to perform their tasks more efficiently
Transferred skill
muscle power manipulating skill vision skill
Results
engine driven First industrial machine tools revolution mechanization hard automation use of position transducers, cameras
cnc machines, industrial robots, soft automation, computer control of manufacturing systems
brain power
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Utilization of computers in manufacturing applications has proved to be one of the most significant developments over the last couple of decades in helping to improve the productivity and efficiency of manufacturing systems.
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The metal cutting operations (also called machining) is one of the most important manufacturing processes in industry today (as it was yesterday).
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MACHINING IS THE REMOVAL OF MATERIALS IN FORMS OF CHIPS FROM THE WORKPIECE BY SHEARING WITH A SHARP TOOL.
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The main function of a machine tool is to control the workpiececutting tool positional relationship in such a way as to achieve a desired geometric shape of the workpiece with sufficient dimensional accuracy.
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Primary motion
Secondary motion
Feed motion
Feed rate
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Cutting speed
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m a c h i n e p o s i t i o n t r a n s d u c e r s
c o n t r o l
u n i t
w o r k
h o l d i n g
d e v i c e
t o o l
h o l d i n g
d e v i c e
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HORIZONT AL AXIS X radial and parallel to cross slide, (+X) when tool goes away from the axis of spindle horizontal and parallel to work holding surface, (+X) to the right when viewed from spindle towards work piece
VERTICAL AXIS horizontal and parallel to the work holding surface, (+X) to the right when viewed from spindle towards column parallel to and positive in the principal direction of cutting (primary motion)
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Vertical Machine
Horizontal Machine
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NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED MACHINE TOOLS: An NC machine tool is functionally the same as a conventional machine tool. The technological capabilities NC machine tools in terms of machining are no different from those of conventional ones. The difference is in the way in which the various machine functions and slide movements are controlled.
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turning the spindle on and off setting cutting speeds setting feed rate turning coolant on and off moving tool with respect to workpiece
are performed by Machine Control Unit (MCU) in NC machine tools.
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INTRODUCTION TO CNC
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HISTORY
US Air Force commissioned MIT to develop the first "numerically controlled" machine in 1949. It was demonstrated in 1952. At 1970-1972 first Computer Numeric Control machines were developed. Today, computer numerical control (CNC) machines are found almost everywhere, from small job shops in rural communities to companies in large urban areas.
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DEFINITION
In CNC (Computer Numerical Control), the instructions are stored as a program in a micro-computer attached to the machine. The computer will also handle much of the control logic of the machine, making it more adaptable than earlier hard-wired controllers.
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CNC APPLICATIONS
Machining 2.5D / 3D Turning ~ Lathes, Turning Centre Milling ~ Machining Centres Forming 2D Plasma and Laser Cutting Blanking, nibbling and punching 3D Rapid Prototyping
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CNC TURNING
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CNC MILLING
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CNC PRESS
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ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY
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ADVANTAGES of CNC
Productivity Machine utilisation is increased because more time is spent cutting and less time is taken by positioning. Reduced setup time increases utilisation too.
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ADVANTAGES of CNC
Quality Parts are more accurate. Parts are more repeatable. Less waste due to scrap.
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ADVANTAGES of CNC
Reduced inventory Reduced setup time permits smaller economic batch quantities. Lower lead time allows lower stock levels. Lower stock levels reduce interest charges and working capital requirements.
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ADVANTAGES of CNC
Machining Complex shapes Slide movements under computer control. Computer controller can calculate steps. First NC machine built 1951 at MIT for aircraft skin milling.
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ADVANTAGES of CNC
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DRAWBACKS of CNC
High capital cost Machine tools cost $30,000 - $1,500,000 Retraining and recruitment of staff New support facilities High maintenance requirements Not cost-effective for low-level production on simple parts As geometric complexity or volume increases CNC becomes more economical Maintenance personnel must have both mechanical and electronics expertise
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NC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
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PART PROGRAM
A part program is a series of coded instructions required to produce a part. It controls the movement of the machine tool and the on/off control of auxiliary functions such as spindle rotation and coolant. The coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers and symbols and are arranged in a format of functional blocks as in the following example N10 G01 X5.0 Y2.5 F15.0 | | | | | | | | | Feed rate (15 in/min) | | | Y-coordinate (2.5") | | X-coordinate (5.0") | Linear interpolation mode Sequence number
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The program input device is the mechanism for part programs to be entered into the CNC control. The most commonly used program input devices are keyboards, punched tape reader, diskette drivers, throgh RS 232 serial ports and networks.
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Read coded instructions Decode coded instructions Implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to generate axis motion commands Feed axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis mechanisms Receive the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis Implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off, and tool change
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In open-loop control system step motors are used Step motors are driven by electric pulses Every pulse rotates the motor spindle through a certain amount By counting the pulses, the amount of motion can be controlled No feedback signal for error correction Lower positioning accuracy
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In closed-loop control systems DC or AC motors are used Position transducers are used to generate position feedback signals for error correction Better accuracy can be achieved More expensive Suitable for large size machine tools
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DRIVE SYSTEM
A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, stepping motors or servomotors and ball lead-screws. The MCU feeds control signals (position and speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits. The control signals are augmented to actuate stepping motors which in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to position the machine table.
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STEPPING MOTORS
A stepping motor provides open-loop, digital control of the position of a workpiece in a numerical control machine. The drive unit receives a direction input (cw or ccw) and pulse inputs. For each pulse it receives, the drive unit manipulates the motor voltage and current, causing the motor shaft to rotate bya fixed angle (one step). The lead screw converts the rotary motion of the motor shaft into linear motion of the workpiece .
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STEPPING MOTORS
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Accuracy of CNC machines depends on their rigid construction, care in manufacturing, and the use of ball screws to almost eliminate slop in the screws used to move portions of the machine.
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POSITIONING
The positioning resolution of a ball screw drive mechanism is directly proportional to the smallest angle that the motor can turn. The smallest angle is controlled by the motor step size. Microsteps can be used to decrease the motor step size. CNC machines typically have resolutions of 0.0025 mm or better.
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MACHINE TOOL
CNC controls are used to control various types of machine tools. Regardless of which type of machine tool is controlled, it always has a slide table and a spindle to control of position and speed. The machine table is controlled in the X and Y axes, while the spindle runs along the Z axis.
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FEEDBACK SYSTEM
The feedback system is also referred to as the measuring system. It uses position and speed transducers to continuously monitor the position at which the cutting tool is located at any particular time. The MCU uses the difference between reference signals and feedback signals to generate the control signals for correcting position and speed errors.
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POTENTIOMETERS
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POTENTIOMETERS
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ENCODERS
A device used to convert linear or rotational position information into an electrical output signal.
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ENCODERS
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RESOLVERS
A resolver is a rotary transformer that produces an output signal that is a function of the rotor position.
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VELOCITY FEEDBACK
Tachometers: Electrical output is proportional to rate of angular rotation. Encoders, Resolvers, Potentiometers: Number of pulses per time is proportional to rate change of position.
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CNC CUTTERS
Turning
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V used for profiling, weakest insert, 2 edges per side. D somewhat stronger, used for profiling when the angle allows it, 2 edges per side. T commonly used for turning because it has 3 edges per side. C popular insert because the same holder can be used for turning and facing. 2 edges per side. W newest shape. Can turn and face like the C, but 3 edges per side. S Very strong, but mostly used for chamfering because it wont cut a square shoulder. 4 edges per side. R strongest insert but least commonly used.
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Most machining centers use some form of HSS or carbide insert endmill as the basic cutting tool. Insert endmills cut many times faster than HSS, but the HSS endmills leave a better finish when side cutting.
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Facemills flatten large surfaces quickly and with an excellent finish. Notice the engine block being finished in one pass with a large cutter.
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Ball endmills (both HSS and insert) are used for a variety of profiling operations such as the mold shown in the picture. Slitting and side cutters are used when deep, narrow slots must be cut.
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Drills, Taps, and Reamers Common HSS tools such as drills, taps, and reamers are commonly used on CNC machining centers. Note that a spot drill is used instead of a centerdrill. Also, spiral point or gun taps are used for through holes and spiral flute for blind holes. Rarely are hand taps used on a machining center.
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TOOL HOLDERS
All cutting tools must be held in a holder that fits in the spindle. These include end mill holders (shown), collet holders, face mill adapters, etc. Most machines in the USA use a CAT taper which is a modified NST 30, 40, or 50 taper that uses a pull stud and a groove in the flange. The machine pulls on the pull stud to hold the holder in the spindle, and the groove in the flange gives the automatic tool changer something to hold onto. HSK tool holders were designed a number of years ago as an improvement to CAT tapers, but they are gaining acceptance slowly.
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CNC PROGRAMMING
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CNC PROGRAMMING
Offline programming linked to CAD programs. Conversational programming by the operator. MDI ~ Manual Data Input. Manual Control using jog buttons or `electronic handwheel'. Word-Address Coding using standard G-codes and M-codes.
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During secondary motion, either the tool moves relative to the workpiece or the workpiece moves relative to the tool. In NC programming, it is always assumed that the tool moves relative to the workpiece no matter what the real situation is.
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The position of the tool is described by using a Cartesian coordinate system. If (0,0,0) position can be described by the operator, then it is called floating zero.
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In defining the motion of the tool from one point to another, either absolute positioning mode or incremental positioning mode can be used.
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1. Absolute positioning. In this mode, the desired target position of the tool for a particular move is given relative to the origin point of the program. 2. Incremental positioning. In this mode, the next target position for the tool is given relative to the current tool position.
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EXAMPLE:
Assume that a drilling operation is to be programmed as: 1. The tool is positioned at (25.4,12.5,0) by a rapid movement. 2. The tool is then advanced -10 mm in the z direction at a feed rate of 500 mm/min., with the flood coolant on. 3.The is then retracted back 10 mm at the rapid feed rate, and the coolant is turned off.
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1. Fixed sequential format 0050 00 +0025400 +0012500 +0000000 0000 00 0060 01 +0025400 +0012500 -0010000 0500 08 0070 00 +0025400 +0012500 +0000000 0000 09
2. Tab sequential format 0050 TAB 00 TAB +0025400 TAB +0012500 TAB +0000000 TAB TAB 0060 TAB 01 TAB TAB TAB -0010000 TAB 0500 TAB 08 0070 TAB 00 TAB TAB TAB -0000000 TAB 0000 TAB 09
3. Word address format N50 G00 X25400 Y125 Z0 F0 N60 G01 Z-10000 F500 M08 N70 G00 Z0 M09
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NC program that will stay in effect until it is changed by some other command, like, feed rate selection, coolant selection, etc.
effective only when issued and whose effects are lost for subsequent commands, like, a dwell command which instructs the tool to remain in a given configuration for a given amount of time.
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CNC PROGRAMMING
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BLOCK FORMAT
Sample Block
N135 G01 X1.0 Y1.0 Z0.125 F5
Restrictions on CNC blocks Each may contain only one tool move Each may contain any number of non-tool move G-codes Each may contain only one feedrate Each may contain only one specified tool or spindle speed The block numbers should be sequential Both the program start flag and the program number must be independent of all other commands (on separate lines) The data within a block should follow the sequence 2004 97 shown in the above sample block
WORD-ADDRESS CODING
Example CNC Program
N5 G90 G20 N10 M06 T3 N15 M03 S1250 N20 G00 X1 Y1 N25 Z0.1 N30 G01 Z-0.125 F5 N35 X3 Y2 F10 N40 G00 Z1 N45 X0 Y0 N50 M05 N55 M30
Each instruction to the machine consists of a letter followed by a number. Each letter is associated with a specific type of action or piece of information needed by the machine.
Letters used in Codes
N,G,X,Y,Z,A,B,C,I,J,K,F,S,T,R,M
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G & M Codes
Example CNC Program
N5 G90 G20 N10 M06 T3 N15 M03 S1250 N20 G00 X1 Y1 N25 Z0.1 N30 G01 Z-0.125 F5 N35 X3 Y2 F10 N40 G00 Z1 N45 X0 Y0 N50 M05 N55 M30
G-codes: Preparatory Functions involve actual tool moves. M-codes: Miscellaneous Functions involve actions necessary for machining (i.e. spindle on/off, coolant on/off).
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G Codes
G00 Rapid traverse G01 Linear interpolation G02 Circular interpolation, CW G03 Circular interpolation, CCW G04 Dwell G08 Acceleration G09 Deceleration G17 X-Y Plane G18 Z-X Plane G19 Y-Z Plane G20 Inch Units (G70) G21 Metric Units (G71)
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G40 Cutter compensation cancel G41 Cutter compensation left G42 Cutter compensationright G70 Inch format G71 Metric format G74 Full-circle programming off G75 Full-circle programming on G80 Fixed-cycle cancel G81-G89 Fixed cycles G90 Absolute dimensions G91 Incremental dimensions 100
Modal G-Codes
Most G-codes set the machine in a mode which stays in effect until it is changed or cancelled by another G-code. These commands are called modal.
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Rapid Transverse Linear Interpolation Circular Interpolation, CW Circular Interpolation, CCW G17 XY Plane G18 XZ Plane G19 YZ Plane G20/G70 Inch units G21/G71 Metric Units G40 Cutter compensation cancel G41 Cutter compensation left G42 Cutter compensation right G43 Tool length compensation (plus)
G43 Tool length compensation (plus) G44 Tool length compensation (minus) G49 Tool length compensation cancel G80 Cancel canned cycles G81 Drilling cycle G82 Counter boring cycle G83 Deep hole drilling cycle G90 Absolute positioning G91 Incremental positioning
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M Codes
M00 M01 M02 M03 M04 M05 M06 M08 M09 M10 M11 M30
Program stop Optional program stop Program end Spindle on clockwise Spindle on counterclockwise Spindle stop Tool change Coolant on Coolant off Clamps on Clamps off Program stop, reset to start
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N Codes
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X, Y, and Z codes are used to specify the coordinate axis. Number following the code defines the coordinate at the end of the move relative to an incremental or absolute reference point.
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I, J, and K codes are used to specify the coordinate axis when defining the center of a circle.
Number following the code defines the respective coordinate for the center of the circle.
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Linear Interpolation results in a straight line feed move. Unless tool compensation is used, the coordinates are associated with the centerline of the tool.
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. As an example, for the motion that occurs in x-y plane with the same maximum speed for the x- and y-axis, initial motion is at an angle of 45o to the axes until motion in one of
the axes is completed and then the balance of the motion occurs in the other axis. This is called point-to-point motion.
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B 2 0
1 5
1 0
P o s i t i o n i n g N 1 0 G 0 0
m o t i o n
f r o m F 0
t o
A 5
X 3 0 0 0 0
Y 2 0 0 0 0
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
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1 5
1 0
A 5
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
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G02 is also a preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved to a specified location along a circular path in a clockwise direction. In order to specify the path to the MCU, the end point of the arc and the location of the center of the arc should be specified. Within the block in which the G02 code is programmed, the center of the arc is given by specifying its location relative to the start of the arc.
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The G02 command requires an endpoint and a radius in order to cut the arc. I,J, and K are relative to the start point. N_ G02 X2 Y1 I0 J-1 F10 or N_ G02 X2 Y1 R1
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I = 5 2 0
1 5 J = 1 5
1 0
B C
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
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The sequence of some machining operations is may be the same for any part and for any machine. For example, drilling a hole involves the following steps: Position the tool above the point where the hole will be drilled
Set the correct spindle speed Feed the tool into the workpiece at a controlled feed rate to a predetermined depth Retract the tool at a rapid rate to just above the point where the hole started
Canned Cycles
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G83
G84 G85 G86
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Peck
Continuous feed
No action
Reverse spindle No action Stop spindle
Rapid
Feed rate Feed rate Rapid
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Through boring(in Continuous & out) feed Through boring(in Continuous only) feed
G81 ILLUSTRATION
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(Absolute units, metric) (Stop for tool change, use tool # 2) (Turn the spindle on CW to 1200 rpm)
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N20 G00 X1 Y1
(Rapid to X1,Y1 from origin point) N25 Z0.125 (Rapid down to Z0.125) N30 G01 Z-0.125 F100 (Feed down to Z-0.125 at 100 mm/min) N35 G01 X2 Y2 (Feed diagonally to X2,Y2) N40 G00 Z1 (Rapid up to Z1) N45 X0 Y0 (Rapid to X0,Y0)
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G-CODE PROGRAM
First pass : conventional mill to a depth of 0.125 around edge profile. Tool 1 is a inch dia. end mill.
% :1002 N5 G90 G20 N10 M06 T1 N15 M03 S1200 N20 G00 X0.125 Y0.125 N30 Z0.125 N35 G01 Z-0.125 F5 N40 X3.875 N45 Y4.125 N50 X0.125 N55 Y0.125
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N100 Y2.125 N105 X2.625 N110 Z0.125 N115 G00 X-5 Y-5 Z5 N120 M05 N125 M30
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Advanced features:
Execution of the part of the program in a rotated or mirrored position. Ability to scale the program and produce larger or smaller programs. Three dimensional circular interpolation which produces a helical shape. Parabolic and cubic interpolation.
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Program Loading:
keyboard punched tape reader diskette drive RS 232 serial port network interface card
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A system in which a central computer downloads the NC programs block by block to many NC machine tools simultaneously is called Direct Numerical Control (DNC) system.
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This system used to work with the early NC machine tools which can not read more than a block of information at a time. The central computer feed the program information one block at a time. When the machine execute the information, the next block of information would be fed.
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Distributed NC is known by the same acronym as Direct Numerical Control (DNC). After the introduction of CNC, the machine tools have had the capability of storing large amount of information. Therefore, there have been no need to have drip feed information system, like, Direct Numerical Control. Instead, Distributed Numerical Control is introduced. In such a system, a host computer communicate with many CNC machine tools via networks and download or upload programs.
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With Distributed Numerical Control systems, it is possible to monitor the activities in individual CNC machine tools on host computer. Therefore, better shop floor control can be achieved.
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NC program preparation may be tedious and difficult if the part to be machined has a complex geometry. The main difficulty is to find out the cutter locations during the machining. Computers may be used to assist the programmers in preparing the NC codes.
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1. It reduces the manual calculations involves in determining the geometric characteristics of the part. It provides the cutter path simulation. It provides tool collision checking. It shortens the program preparation time. It makes the program preparation easier.
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The Aerospace Industries Association sponsored the work that led to the first part programming language, developed in MIT in 1955. This was called: Automatically Programmed Tools (APT). APT is an English like simple programming language which basically produce the Cutter Location (CL) data. Using the cutter location data, the program can generate the actual NC codes by using a postprocessor .
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The output of any CAD package include the geometric data of the part to be machined. Therefore, many CAD/CAM package can produce cutter location (CL) data to be used for NC code generation. There is still to be a process planning module for a workable NC code generation. Some of the CAD/CAM packages that have the NC code generation capabilities are Computervision, CATIA, CADAM, ProEngineer, MechanicalDesktop (Auto Desk).
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