GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING -I

CHAPTER 4
STRESS , STRAIN AND ELASTIC
DEFORMATION OF SOILS

Prepared By:- Yada T.
April 02/2012
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Important aspect of soil mechanics is used to predict the
stresses & strains imposed at a given point in a soil mass
due to certain loading conditions.
Why?
to estimate settlement
to conduct stability analysis of earth and earth-
retaining structures
to determine stress conditions on underground.
A geotechnical engineer must ensure that a geotechnical
structure must not collapse under any estimated loading
condition and that settlement under working load must
be within tolerable limits.

Introduction
We would prefer the settlement under working load to be
elastic so that no permanent settlement would occur and thus
use elastic analysis to calculate the settlement.
An elastic analysis of an isotropic material involves only two
constants Youngs modulus (E) and Poissons ratio ().
Both constants can be determined either from laboratory or
field test.
since we need to have only two constants the case or the
prediction of stress and strain becomes simple.
An important task of a geotechnical engineer is to determine
the stresses and strains that are imposed on a soil mass by
external loads.
Contd.
It is customary to assume that the strains in the
soils are small and this assumption allows us
to apply our knowledge of mechanics of elastic
bodies to soils.
In this chapter, we will review some
fundamental principles of mechanics and
strength of materials and apply these principles
to soils.

4,2.Stresses and Strains
4.2.1. Normal Stresses and Strains
Stress mean that how much amount of force is applied
on the some cross-sectional area of the material.
Normal stress is produced by the normal force which
is applied on the soil.
Which is obtained by the normal force divided by the
cross-sectional area of the material.
Strain is the ratio of the deformed length to the
normal length of the material.
Normal strain is produced due to the normal load
Stresses and Strains
1. Normal Stresses and Strains
The normal stresses and normal strains respectively are

xz
P
yz
P
xy
P
y
y
x
x
z
z
= = = o o o , ,
y
y
x
x
z
z
y x z
A
=
A
=
A
= c c c , ,
Volumetric Strain
The volumetric strain is :-
Is the strain through out the volume of the material.
4.2.2. Shear Stresses and Shear Strains.
For a shearing force F the shear stress is:

z y x p
c c c c + + =
xy
F
= t
z
x
z
x
zx zx
A
=
A
=

tan or tan
1
z
x
zx
A
=
Shear stress is a stress which is produced due
to the shear force.
Shear strain is also produced due to the shear
force.



4.2.2.1.Shear strain
The simple shear strain, also called engineering shear
strain,
zx
is :-

For small strains:-
Therefore

In geotechnical engineering, compressive stresses in soils
are assumed to be positive.
Soils can not sustain any appreciable tensile stresses and
we normally assume that the tensile strength of soils is
negligible.
Strains can be compressive or tensile.


z
x
z
x
zx zx
A
=
A
=

tan or tan
1
zx zx
= tan
z
x
zx
A
=
4.3.Idealized Stress-Strain Response and Yielding
4.3.1Material Response to Normal Loading and Unloading.





The change in vertical stress for
a uniaxial loading.

A
P
z
A
= Ao
The vertical and radial strains
are,


where
H
0
is the original length and r
0
is
the original radius.
0
H
z
z
A
= Ac
0
r
r
r
A
= Ac
Contd
In the uniaxial case the two strains are
lateral/radial/ and vertical strain.
The ratio of the two strains are said to be Poissons
ratio,


The negative sign indicates that the strain in the
radial direction is elongates and in vertical
direction deforms.
In the uniaxial case the value of poisons ratio
ranges from 0-.5.
z
r
c
c
u
A
A
=
Elastic constants of soil
The ratio of the radial (or lateral) strain to the vertical
strain is called Poissons ratio,(), defined as :-
But , is bounded as 0 < < 0.5
Typical values of Poissons ratio for soils.

z
r
c
c
u
A
A
=

Soil Type

Description

*





Clay

Soft

0.35 0.40

Medium

0.30 0.35

Stiff

0.20 0.30



Sand

Loose

0.15 0.25

Medium

0.25 0.30

Dense

0.25 0.35
Contd
ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY
Elastic behavior is when the soil is subjected to
some loading conditions and the load is released if it
reverts to its original direction the soil is said to be
elastic.
If it cant revert to its initial position it is said to be
in plastic state.
A body under elastic deformation reverts to its
original state on the removal of the loads.

Responses of linearly and non-linearly elastic materials
to normal loading and unloading
The following Fig.1 shows typical responses of
linearly and non-linearly elastic materials to
normal loading and unloading.
In stress strain curve, the slope of linearly elastic
material is said to be modulus of elasticity E.
In the non linearly elastic materials we do have
two elastic modulus's tangent and secant modulus
of elasticity.

Contd
Linearly elastic and non linearly elastic fig 1.
Loading and unloading
Elastic and plastic behavior

Contd
4.3.2 Material Response to Shear Forces
The effect of normal forces are to compress or
deform materials but the effect of Shear forces are
to distort materials.
In the shear stress and shear strain diagram we get
the elastic constants which are
Initial shear modulus
Tangent shear modulus and
Secant shear modulus

See from the ff graph
Contd
Figure 4.6: Shear stress-shear strain response of an elastoplastic
material.
Elastic constants
In addition to poisons ratio we have around four elastic
constants that relate strain to stresses .
Bulk modules (k) ,
Elastic modules (E) ,
Shear modules (G)
Lame constants ( 1
st
- and 2
nd
- u )
All these five constants are bounded at least from below
their bounds are generated from stain energy concept.
Their bounds are E > 0 and K > 0
u > 0 or G > 0.
[You will learn more, on these elastic constants in your Msc-program
!]

Elastics constants
Only two of these parameters either [E or G] and [] are
required to solve problems dealing with isotropic, elastic
materials.
Typical values of of E and G.

Soil Type

Description

E (MPa)

G (MPa)

Clay

Soft

1 15

0.5 5

Medium

15 30

5 15

Stiff

30 100

15 40

Sand

Loose

10 20

5 10

Medium

20 40

10 15

Dense

40 80

15 35
4.3.3 Yield Surface

to know something about the yield surface let
us go out from uniaxial case.
(Fig. below). In this case, we are going to
apply increments of vertical and radial
stresses. Since we are not applying any shear
stresses, the axial stresses and radial stresses
are principal stresses
Contd.








Figure 4.7: Elastic, yield and elastoplastic stress
states.
Contd
Let us, for example, set 3 to zero and increase 1.
The material will yield at some value of 1, which
we will call (1)y and plot it as point A in Fig. 4.7b.
If, alternatively, we set 1=0 and increase 3, the
material will yield at (3)y and is represented by
point B in Fig. 4.7b.
We can then subject the cylinder to various
combinations of 1 and 3 and plot the resulting
yield points.
Linking the yield points results in a curve, AB, which
is called the yield curve or yield surface.
Contd
The curve AB is called the yield curve or yield surface.
A material subjected to a combination of stresses that lies
below the curve will respond elastically (recoverable
deformation).
If loading is continued beyond the yield stress, the material
will respond elastoplastically or deformation occurs.
If the material is isotropic, the yield surface will be
symmetrical about the
1
,
3
axes.




Cont

Hookes Law stress strain relations
Robert Hooke (1676) stated that the force needed to elongate
a spring is a linear function of the stresses.
The most familiar elastic constants are Youngs Modulus
and Poissons ratio. Both are illustrated by the following an
elastic bar in uniaxial tension.




The stress o
xx
will cause the bar to elongate, which results
in extensional strain c
xx
.
Based on experimental observations, c
xx
depends linearly
on o
xx


xx
o
xx
o
Contd
Where E is Youngs modulus. It has
dimensions of stress.



For an isotropic, linear elastic material, c
yy
and c
zz
will be
equal and will both be linear functions of c
xx
.



Where v is Poissons ratio. It is a dimensionless quantity.




E
xx
xx
o
c =
xx zz yy
vc c c = =
xx zz yy
E
o
v
c c = =
Contd

The extensional strain c
xx
will depend on all
three stresses.


Finally the three strains will come

zz yy
xx
xx
E E E
o
v
o
v o
c =
)] ( [
1
)] ( [
1
)] ( [
1
yy xx zz zz
zz xx yy yy
zz yy xx xx
E
E
E
o o v o c
o o v o c
o o v o c
+ =
+ =
+ =
Hookes Law
( Generalized state of stress)



Stress and strains for a linear, isotropic, elastic soil
are related through Hookes law. For a generalized
state of stress (Fig. below), Hookes law is

Contd
We do have strain from hooks law






zx zx
yz yz
xy xy
G
G
G
o
o
o
=
=
=
is the shear modulus. We will call E, G and u the elastic parameters. Only two of these
parameters either E or G and u are required to solve problems dealing with isotropic,
elastic materials.
4.4.2 Principal Stresses
If the stresses applied to a soil are principal stresses,
then Hookes law reduces to



The matrix on the above is called the compliance
matrix. The inverse of this matrix is called the
stiffness matrix.

3
2
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
o
o
o
u u
u u
u u
c
c
c
E
Displacements from Strains and Forces from
Stresses
The displacements and forces are obtained by
integration. For example, the vertical displacement,
, is

and the axial force is


Where is the height or thickness of the element
and dA is the elemental area.

Plane strain and axisymmetric conditions
Let us consider an element of soil, A, behind a
retaining wall (Fig. 4.9). Because the displacement
that is likely to occur in the Y direction( ) is small
compared with the length in this direction, the strain
tends to zero; that is,

Contd

Plane strain condition is when the strain in one
direction is ignored. So the above hookes law
becomes,
| |
3 1 1
) 1 (
1
uo o u
u
c
+
=
E
| |
1 3 3
) 1 (
1
uo o u
u
c
+
=
E
) (
3 1 2
o o u o + =
Contd..
The above equations in the matrix form becomes



4.5.2 Axisymmetric Condition
It means axial symmetry condition where two stresses
are equal.
On the following fig The radial stress (
r
) and the
circumferential stress (

) on a cylindrical element of soil

directly under the center of the tank are equal because of
axial symmetry.



)
`

+
=
)
`

3
1
3
1
1
1
1
o
o
u u
u u
u
c
c
E
)
`

+
=
)
`

2
1
2
1
1
1
) 2 1 )( 1 ( c
c
u u
u u
u u o
o
E
Cont
Water tank located on the soil mass.




For axisymmetry condition hookes law proves that

| |
3 1 1
2
1
uo o c =
E
| |
1 3 3
) 1 (
1
uo o u c =
E
Cont
It can also be written in matrix form



4.6 Anisotropic Elastic States
there are two types of anisotropy
structural anisotropy
transverse anisotropy
stress induced anisotropy.
structural anisotropy it is the result of the kind of soil fabric that
is formed during deposition.
-A special type of structural anisotropy occurs when the horizontal
plane is a plane of anisotropy.

)
`

=
)
`

3
1 1
) 1 (
2 1
1
3 o
o
u u
u
c
c
E
)
`

+
=
)
`

3
1
3
1
1
2 1
) 2 1 )( 1 (
c
c
u
u u
u u
o
o
E
Contd
for transverse anisotropy, we need only 5 elastic constants; these are
E
z
, E
x
, , , and
The first letter in the double subscripts denotes the direction of
loading and the second letter denotes the direction of measurement.

means poisons ratio determined from the ratio of the strain in the
lateral direction (X direction) to the strain in the vertical direction (Z
direction) with the load applied in the vertical direction (Z direction).
For axisymmetric conditions, the transverse anisotropic, elastic
equations are



xx
u
zx
u
zz
u
)
`

A
A

=
)
`

A
A
r
z
r
rr
z
zr
r
rz
z
r
z
E E
E E
o
o
u u
u
c
c
) 1 (
2
1
zx
u
For axisymmetric conditions, the transverse anisotropic,
elastic equations are
Geostatic stress
Stress within the soil are caused by the external load
applied to the soil and by weight of the soil. But the
pattern of stress caused by external load and soil's
own weight can be quit complicated.
Vertical Geostatic stress
Vertical geostatic stress at any depth can be
computed simply by considering the weight of
soil above that depth.

If the unit weight of the soil varies contentiously
with depth, the vertical stress can be evaluated by
means of the integral

Geostatic stress
If the soil is stratified and the unit weight is
different for each stratum, then the vertical stress
can conveniently be computed by means of
summation

Horizontal Geostatic stress
The ratio of horizontal to vertical stress is
expressed by factor called the coefficient of
lateral stress or lateral stress ratio (K)
EXAMPLE 4.2
An oil tank is founded on a layer of medium sand 5 m
thick underlain by a deep deposit of dense sand. The
geotechnical engineer assumed, based on experience,
that the settlement of the tank would occur from
settlement in the medium sand. The vertical and lateral
stresses at the middle of the medium sand directly
under the center of the tank are 50 kPa and 20 kPa,
respectively. The values of E and are 20 MPa and
0.3, respectively. Assuming a linear, isotropic, elastic
material behavior, calculate the strains imposed on the
medium sand and the vertical settlement.
EXAMPLE 4.2
SOLUTION
Step 1: Draw a diagram of the problem.
Step 2: Decide on a stress condition.
The element is directly under
the center of the tank, so the
the axisymmetric condition
prevails.
Step 3: Choose the appropriate equation and solve.
Use Eq. (4.24)
)
`

=
)
`

A
A
20
50
7 . 0 3 . 0
6 . 0 1
10 20
1
3
3
1
c
c
| |
| |
5
3
3
3
3
1
10 5 20 7 . 0 50 3 . 0
10 20
1
10 9 . 1 20 6 . 0 50 1
10 20
1

= +

= A
=

= A
c
c
Step 4: Calculate the
vertical displacement
| | mm 9.5 m 10 5 . 9 10 9 . 1
3
5
0
3
5
0
1
= = = A = A
A = A

z dz z
z
z
c
c c
Stresses in soil from surface load
The distribution of surface stresses within a soil is
determined by assuming that the soil is a semi-
infinite, homogeneous, linear, isotropic, elastic
material.
A semi-infinite mass is bounded on one side and
extends infinitely in all other directions; this is also
called an elastic half space. For soils, the horizontal
surface is the bounding side.
Equations and charts for several types of surface
loads based on the above assumptions are presented.
Contd
Types of load causes stresses on soil surfaces
Stress caused by point load: proposed by Boussinesq,
Stress caused by line loads: proposed by Flammant
Stress caused by strip loads
Stress caused by uniform distributed load


1. Point Load
Boussinesq (1885) presented a solution for the distribution of
stresses for a point load applied on the soil surface.
An example of a point load is the vertical load transferred to
the soil from an electric power line pole.

The increases in stresses on a soil element located at point A
due to a point load, Q, are
Where I is an influence factor.





I
z
Q
z
2
= o
2 / 5
2
) / ( 1
1
2
3
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
z r
I
t
Cont
Influence factor (I
p
the same to

I ) for vertical stress due to
point load is given in table below. Depend up on r/z.
Exercise
A concentrated load of 1000 kN is applied at the ground surface.
Compute the vertical pressure
(i) at a depth of 4 m below the load,
(ii) at a distance of 3 m at the same depth. Use Boussinesq's
equation.
50
2. Line load
A practical example of line load is the load from a long
brick wall.

The increase in stresses due to a line load, Q (force/ unit
length).


Line Load Near a Buried Earth Retaining Structure
The increase in lateral stress on a buried earth retaining
structure (Fig. 4.12b) due to a line load of intensity Q
(force/length) is :-


The increase in lateral force is





2 2 2
0
2
) (
4
b a H
b Qa
x
+
= A
t
o
) 1 (
2
2
+
= A
a
Q
P
x
t
3. Strip Load

A strip load is the load transmitted by a structure of finite width and
infinite length on a soil surface.
Two types of strip loads are common in geotechnical engineering.
load that imposes a uniform stress on the soil.
load that induces a triangular stress distribution over an
area.
The following figure shows Strip load imposing (a) a
uniform stress and (b) a linearly varying stress. (c) Strip load
near a retaining wall and (d) lateral force near a retaining
wall from a strip load.


Cont
Fig.
Cont
For the above four types the increase in stresses can be
determined as follows.
(a) Area transmitting a uniform stress (Fig. 4.13a



(b) Area transmitting triangular stress (Fig. 4.13b)



| | ) 2 cos( sin | o o o
t
o + + = A
s
z
q
| | ) 2 cos( sin | o o o
t
o + = A
s
x
q
| | ) 2 sin( sin | o o
t
t + = A
s
zx
q
|
.
|

\
|
= A | o
t
o 2 sin
2
1
B
x q
s
z
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = A | o
t
o 2 sin ln
2
1
2
2
2
1
R
R
B
z
B
x q
s
x
|
.
|

\
|
+ = A o |
t
t
B
q
s
zx
2
2 2 cos 1
Cont
(c) Area transmitting triangular stress (Fig. 4.21c,d)

) 2 cos sin (
2
o | |
t
o = A
s
x
q
| | ) (
90
1 2 0
u u = A H
q
P
s
x
) ( 2
3 . 57 ) ( ) (
1 2 0
0 2 1 1 2
2
0
u u
u u

+
=
H
BH R R H
z
) 90 ( and ), 90 ( ) (
, tan , tan
1
2
2 2
2
1
0
1
2
0
1
1
u u
u u
= + =
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

a R B a R
H
B a
H
a
Example
Three parallel strip footings 3 m wide each and 5 m apart center
to center transmit contact pressures of 200, 150 and 100 kN/m2
respectively.
Calculate the vertical stress due to the combined loads beneath
the centers of each footing at a depth of 3 m below the base.
Assume the footings are placed at a depth of 2 m below the
ground surface. Use Boussinesq method for line loads.

57
We know
58
4. Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
An example of circular area that transmits stresses to a
soil mass in a circular foundation of an oil or water tank.
The increases of vertical and radial stresses under a
circular area of radius r
0
are:-


Where:-
is an influence factor.












c s s z
I q
z r
q =

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= A
2 / 3
2
0
) ( 1
1
1 o

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 / 3
2
0
) ( 1
1
1
z r
I
c

5. Approximate Method for Rectangular Loads
In preliminary analyses of vertical stress increases under
the center of rectangular loads, Geotechnical engineers
often use an approximate method (The 2:1 method).
The surface load on an area, (BxL),is dispersed at a depth
Z over an area (Z+B)(Z+L).
The vertical load increase under the center of the
rectangle is




















where and
The vertical load increase under the center of the
rectangle is









Fig.: Dispersion of load for approximate increase in
vertical stress under a rectangle

where and
) )( ( z L z B
BL q
s
z
+ +
= Ao
Newmark (1942) developed a chart to determine the
increase in vertical stress due to a uniformly loaded
area of any shape.

When the foundation consists of a large number of
footings or when the loaded mats or rafts are not regular
in shape, a chart developed by Newmark (1942) is more
practical than the methods explained before.

The chart consists of concentric circles divided by radial
lines.:-

(read handout.)

where and
6. Vertical Stress Below Arbitrarily Shaped Area
where and
New mark's Influence Chart
The area of each segment represents an equal proportion of
the applied surface stress at depth z below the surface.
Example:- If there are 10 concentric circles (only 9 are
shown because the 10
th
extends to infinity) and 20 radial
lines, the stress on each circle is (q
s
/10) and on each
segment is (q
s
/10*20) .
The radius to depth ratio of the first (inner) circle is
found by setting (Ao
z
= 0.1q
s
).That is

From which r/z = 0.27


For the other circles, substitute the appropriate value of Ao
z
.
E.g For the second circle Ao
z
= 0.2q
s
then find r/z.





where and

)
`

+
=
2 3
2
0
) ( 1
1
1 1 . 0
z r
q q
s s
The procedure for using New mark's chart
1. Set the scale, shown on the chart, equal to the depth at
which the increase in vertical stress is required. We will
call this the depth scale.
2. Identify the point on the loaded area below which the
stress is required. Let us say this point is point A.
3. Plot the loaded area using the depth scale with point A at
the center of the chart.
4. Count the number of segments (N
s
) covered by the
scaled loaded area. If certain segments are not fully
covered, you can estimate what fraction is covered.\
5. Calculate the increase in vertical stress by
.
s N s z
N I q = Ao

Summary of stress, strain and
elastic deformation of soil
mass
Important aspect of soil mechanics is used to predict the
stresses & strains imposed at a given point in a soil mass
due to certain loading conditions.
Why?
to estimate settlement
to conduct stability analysis of earth and earth-
retaining structures
to determine stress conditions on underground.
To determine strain and etc

Normal stress and strain
What is normal stress and strain?
From Fig below, each face of the prismatic element there
are 3 stress components.
Because of equal but opposite stresses on opposite faces
of the prism, we have a total of nine stress components.
These are six shear stress and three normal stress
components



Stresses and Strains
1. Normal Stresses and Strains
The normal stresses and normal strains respectively are

xz
P
yz
P
xy
P
y
y
x
x
z
z
= = = o o o , ,
y
y
x
x
z
z
y x z
A
=
A
=
A
= c c c , ,
Stress Tensor
The six (or nine) stress components described
above form an entity called stress tensor, T.
It is given in matrix form as follows and 3 order
stress tensor.
o =

;

Stress tensor means writing nine stress component in
matrix from.
State of plane stress
This condition of stress prevails, if in one of the three
pairs of parallel faces of the prism, the resultant stress
is zero.(i.e o
y
=0, for plane stress condition)
In Cartesian coordinate system, this is, for example;
o
y
= t
xy
,= t
yz
=0 &
o
x
, o
z
& t
xz
are constant in the y-direction.

=

; 2
nd
order stress tensor

Plane strain and axisymmetric conditions
Plain strain conditions
the strain in one direction of axis assumed to be zero, (i.e
along c
x
, c
y
and c
z
in x, y, and z axis respectively)
Assume c
y
=0 , so Hooke's become


For stress component



1. What does we mean Axisymmetric Condition?
2. Discuss two types of anisotropy elastic

Contd
3. What is geostatic stress? Assuming no
movement of soil in the horizontal direction
and small strains, what is the relationship
between vertical and horizontal geostatic
stresses?
4. What is the difference between total stress and
Effective stress? Which one is more important
in studying mechanical behavior of soils?
Explain your answer.