Stesan Kuasa

Penghantaran Pengagihan

Unit 2: TRANSMISSION

Pengguna

Introduction

Penghantaran

Pengagihan

TRANSMISSION

DISTRIBUTION
Distribute from distribution substations to end users.

Transmit from power plant to distribution substations

Transmission line
R L C

What is Transmission line?

A transmission line is the material medium or structure that forms all or part of a path from one place to another for directing the transmission of energy, such as electromagnetic waves as well as electric power transmission. Components of transmission lines include wires, coaxial cables, dielectric slabs, optical fibres, electric power lines, and waveguides.

Transmission System
Losses 4

type of power lines

4 type of power lines:

1- Low Voltage (< 600 V) 2- Medium Voltage ( 2.4 kV to 69 kV) 3 -High Voltage (< 230kV) 4 - Extra High Voltage (800 kV, 1000 km)

Losses

Some of the power that is fed into a transmission line is lost because of its resistance. This effect is called ohmic or resistive loss (see ohmic heating). At high frequencies, another effect called dielectric loss becomes significant, adding to the losses caused by resistance. Dielectric loss is caused when the insulating material inside the transmission line absorbs energy from the alternating electric field and converts it to heat (see dielectric heating).

Losses (cont)

In an alternating current circuit, the inductance and capacitance of the phase conductors can be significant. The currents that flow in these components of the circuit impedance constitute reactive power, which transmits no energy to the load. Reactive current flow causes extra losses in the transmission circuit. The ratio of real power (transmitted to the load) to apparent power is the power factor. As reactive current increases, the reactive power increases and the power factor decreases. For systems with low power factors, losses are higher than for systems with high power factors.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission#Losses

R,L,C in transmission line.

There are several term involves in transmission line such as resistance, capacitance and inductance called parameter. This parameters are not the same along the lines and may effect the efficiency of power transmissions. The effect may vary by length of transmission lines.

Component of a transmission line

Schematic representation of the elementary component of a transmission line.

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Component of a transmission line (cont..)

The distributed resistance R of the conductors is represented by a series resistor (expressed in ohms per unit length). The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field around the wires, self-inductance, etc.) is represented by a series inductor (henries per unit length). The capacitance C between the two conductors is represented by a shunt capacitor C (farads per unit length). The conductance G of the dielectric material separating the two conductors is represented by a conductance G shunted between the signal wire and the return wire (siemens per unit length).

*** The model consists of an infinite series of the elements shown in the figure, and that the values of the components are specified per unit length so the picture of the component can be misleading. R, L, C, and G may also be functions of frequency. An alternative notation is to use R', L', C' and G' to emphasize that the values are derivatives with respect to length.

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Telegrapher's equations

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The Telegrapher's Equations (or just Telegraph Equations) are a pair of linear differential equations which describe the voltage and current on an electrical transmission line with distance and time. They were developed by Oliver Heaviside who created the transmission line model, and are based on Maxwell's Equations.

Classification of transmission lines

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Classification of transmission lines

Transmission

lines are classified as short, medium and long. When the length of the line is less than about 60km the effect of shunt capacitance and conductance is neglected and the line is designated as a short transmission line. For these lines the operating voltage is less than 20KV.
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Short transmission line model

Vsn = Vm+ IR kos R + IX sin R.

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Short transmission line model (cont)

Vsn - Voltan pada penghujung penghantaran Vm - Voltan hujung penerima I - Arus beban pada R mengekor R - Rintangan gelung () X - Kearuhan gelung ()

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OF V R kos R IR kos S OC VS

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Sebenarnya daripada rajah vektor ini bukan sahaja kita dapat menentukan nilai VS dan faktor kuasa, tapi kita juga dapat menentukan peratus pengaturan bagi sebuah talian pendek dengan merujuk kepada parameterparameter yang diberikan. Peratus pengaturan voltan merujuk kepada Rajah 2.3 boleh ditulis sebagai.
Peratus Pengaturan

= IR kos R IX sin R x 100 VS

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Short Transmission Line

Short Transmission Line The equivalent circuit and vector diagram of a short transmission line are shown in the figure given below. In the equivalent circuit short transmission line is represented by the lumped parameters R and L. R is the resistance (per phase) L is the inductance (per phase) of the entire transmission line. The effect of shunt capacitance and conductance is not considered in the equivalent circuit. The line is shown to have two ends : sending end (designated by the subscript S) at the generator, and the receiving end (designated R) at the load.

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Performance of Transmission Lines

The performance of a power system is mainly dependent on the performance of the transmission lines in the system. It is necessary to calculate the voltage, current and power at any point on a transmission line provided the values at one point are known. The transmission line performance is governed by its four parameters - series resistance and inductance, shunt capacitance and conductance.

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Performance of Transmission Lines (CONT.)

All these parameters are distributed over the length of the line. The insulation of a line is seldom perfect and leakage currents flow over the surface of insulators especially during bad weather. This leakage is simulated by shunt conductance. The shunt conductance is in parallel with the system capacitance. Generally the leakage currents are small and the shunt conductance is ignored in calculations.

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Performance of Transmission Lines (CONT.)

Performance of transmission lines is meant the determination of efficiency and regulation of lines. The efficiency of transmission lines is defined as:

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Performance of Transmission Lines (CONT.)

The end of the line where load is connected is called the receiving end and where source of supply is connected is called the sending end. The Regulation of a line is defined as the change in the receiving end voltage, expressed in percent of full load voltage, from no load to full load, keeping the sending end voltage and frequency constant.

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Classification of transmission lines (cont)

For medium transmission lines the length of the line is in between 60km - 150km and the operating line voltage wil be in between 21KV-100KV. In this case the shunt capacitance can be assumed to be lumped at the middle of the line or half of the shunt capacitance may be considered to be lumped each end of the line. The two representations of medium length lines are termed as nominal-T and nominal- respectively.

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2. Medium transmission line

Vsn = Vm + Isn (R + jX).

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Classification of transmission lines (cont)

Lines more than 150km long and line voltage above 100KV require calculations in terms of distributed parameters. Such lines are known as long transmission lines. This classification on the basis of length is more or less arbitrary and the real criterion is the degree of accuracy required.

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3. Long transmission line

Electronic Model of a Transmission Line

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Capacitance and inductance are associated with the physical devices called capacitors and inductors used in circuits to create various types of filters. Capacitance and inductance are also encountered whenever electricity is flowing in conductors. In this situation, they are effects rather than physical circuit elements. Resistance, capacitance, and inductance are distributed uniformly along the length of a transmission line. Capacitance is a parallel effect, inductance is a series effect, and resistance is both a series and parallel effect. The parallel capacitance and resistance are called shunt capacitance and shunt resistance. All these characteristic effects are expressed on a per distance basis, for example, farads per mile for shunt capacitance.

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Talian terdiri dari beberapa parameter malar ialaitu rintangan, kearuhan, kemuatan dan kealiran yang wujud disepanjang pengagihan talian penghantaran yang panjang. Rintangan (R) dan regangan beraruhan (X) merupakan element siri dalam talian pengehantaran. Rentetan kemuatan (B) dan kealiran bocor (G) merupankan element pirau, kealiran bocor juga menyebabkan kehilangan kuasa dalam talian. Ia berpunca daripada kebocoran penebatan atau kesan korona pada pengalir. Arus bocor yang mengalir melalui lepasan pirau adalah maksima pada hujung penghantaran talian penghantaran dan berkurangan secara berterusan ketika menuju ke hujung penerima dan akhirnya menjadi sifar setelah tiba ke hujung talian penerima.

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Kesan-Kesan Voltan ke atas Kecekapan Penghantaran.

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ASSIGNMENT #1(B)
Terangkan: Adakah peningkatan voltan dapat meningkatkan kecekapan penghantaran bekalan kepada pengguna? Adakah peningkatan voltan dapat menjimatkan kos penghantaran bekalan kepada pengguna?

Unit2/19
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Corona

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Corona discharge

Corona discharge is the creation of ions in a fluid (such as air) by the presence of a strong electric field. Electrons are torn from un-ionized air, and either the positive ions or else the electrons are attracted to the conductor, whilst the charged particles drift. This effect can cause considerable power loss, create audible and radio-frequency interference, generate toxic compounds such as oxides of nitrogen and ozone, and lead to arcing.

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Both AC and DC transmission lines can generate coronas, in the former case in the form of oscillating particles, in the latter a constant wind. Due to the space charge formed around the conductors, an HVDC system may have about half the loss per unit length of a high voltage AC system carrying the same amount of power.

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Corona is the physical manifestation of energy loss, and can transform discharge energy into very small amounts of sound, radio noise, heat, and chemical reactions of the air components.
Because power loss is uneconomical and noise is undesirable, corona on transmission lines has been studied by engineers since the early part of this century.

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Factors influence the corona.

Several factors, including: voltage, shape and diameter of conductor, and surface irregularities such as scratches, nicks, dust, or water drops can affect a conductors electrical surface gradient and its corona performance.
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CORONA AND INDUCED CURRENT EFFECTS

Effects include: audible noise, radio, television and computer monitor interference gaseous effluents, shock potential.

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Overcome the corona

i). increase the conductor diameter (example; by using ACSR). ii). Use more than one conductor (bundle conductor) iii). Increase the distance of conductors, so the effect of magnetic field will be reduced.

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ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS STEEL REINFORCED (ACSR)

Available in a wide range of steel varying from as low as 6% to as high as 40%...

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ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS STEEL REINFORCED (ACSR)

Transmission lines use ACSR (aluminum cable, steel reinforced) and ACAR (aluminum cable, alloy reinforced) conductors. In an ACSR conductor, a stranded steel core carries the mechanical load, and layers of stranded aluminum surrounding the core carry the current. An ACAR conductor is a stranded cable made of an aluminum alloy with low resistance and high mechanical strength. ACSR conductors are usually used for high-voltage lines, and ACAR conductors for subtransmission and distribution lines. Ultrahigh-voltage (UHV) and extrahigh-voltage (EHV) lines use bundle conductors. Each phase of the line is built with two, three, or four conductors connected in parallel and separated by about 1.5 ft (0.5 m). Bundle conductors reduce corona discharge
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Energy+transmission

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ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS STEEL REINFORCED

This conductor consists of a solid or stranded steel core surrounded by strands of aluminium (E.C. GRADE). ACSR conductor is available in a wide range of steel varying from as low as 6% to as high as 40 %. The higher strength ACSR conductors are used for river crossings, overhead ground wires, installations involving extra long spans etc. against any given resistance of conductor, ACSR conductor may be manufactured for having a wide range of tensile strength as per requirement. The principal advantage of these conductors are high tensile strength and light weight with longer spans as well as with lesser supports. Due to the greater diameter of ACSR conductors a much higher corona limit can be obtained causing big advantages on high as well as extra high voltage overhead lines.

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Recap

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Recap

Menakrifkan talian pendek, melakar rajah litar satu talian pendek dan melabelkannya. Menakrifkan talian sederhana, melakar rajah litar satu talian pendek dan melabelkannya. Menakrifkan talian panjang, melakar rajah litar satu talian pendek dan melabelkannya. Mentakrifkan pengaturan voltan. Menakrifkan kecekapan penghantaran.
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