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Growing secularism, declining religion Seventeenth century seen as turning point in modern state system
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intellectualism
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Overview (cont)
A yearning for order Absolute monarchies, or absolutism, was a means to order
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Overview (cont)
Absolute and limited monarchies were the two opposite poles of state building
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Western Europe France, best example Unquestionable control and power over all aspects of government
England Limited by representative assemblies Limited control and power over government
Absolute Monarchy
Limited Monarchy
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Population increase
Warmer climate More food production First major recovery since Black Death of
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Hysteria effected Europeans in 16th and 17th centuries England, Scotland, Switzerland, Germany, France, New England (America)
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Witchcraft part of villages for centuries Medieval churches began to link witches with the devilnot Biblically acceptable Enforcement turned over to secular authorities
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Increased numbers from 16th to 17th centuries Perhaps 100,000 people prosecuted Cities first then spread to rural areas
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Torture forced confession Incantations, special ointments, and powders to wreak havoc on neighbors were part of confessions
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sell potions and other remedies to survive were handy scapegoats Women seen as inferior-- becoming witches for pleasure seeking
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(judge), not unreasonable that this scum of humanity (witches) should be drawn chiefly from the feminine sex
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Most theologians, lawyers, and philosophers believed in early modern Europe believed in natural inferiority of women Found it plausible for women to be witches
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Decline of Witchcraft
Fewer magistrates willing to accept the divisive conditions of the trials People found it contrary to reason to accept the old view of a world haunted by spirits
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The first half of the 17th century was plagued by crises A devastating war effected much of Europe Another war fomented by religious differences
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Peace of Augsburg ended religious warfare but Lutherans and Catholics continued to struggle for control of principalities
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The Calvinist ruler of the Palatinate, Elector Palatine Frederick IV, formed the Protestant Uniona league of German Protestant states Duke Maximilian of Bavaria countered with the Catholic League
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By 1609, Germany was dividing into two armed camps Anticipating religious war
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German liberties
Hapsburg looked to Spain for help, ruled by another branch of the Hapsburg family German princes looked to France for help, the enemies of Spain
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Many nobles were Calvinists Ferdinand was a Catholic He fostered re-Catholicizing Bohemia Wanted to strengthen royal power
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secretary out the window of the royal castle in Prague The seat of the Bohemian government They survived the fall Catholics story: Intercession of Mary Protestants story: They fell into manure pile
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Protestant Union Ferdinand, elected Holy Roman Emperor, refused to accept his disposition
The imperial forces (Ferdinand) defeated Frederick and the Bohemian nobles at the Battle of White Mountain
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Spanish troops go on to conquer the Palatinate Frederick flees into exile Contemporary Prague
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Ferdinand confiscates land of Protestant nobles Spanish renew their attack on Dutch At this point, Catholicism seemed on the road to victory
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Christian IV defeated by Catholic League under Count Tilly Christian suffers even greater loss from Wallenstein the following year
Meant the end of Danish supremacy in the Baltic
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property taken by Protestant princes the past 75 years Dismissed Wallenstein because princes feared loss of independence
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control of Franco-German border Sweden and German states of Brandenburg and Bavaria gained some German territory
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Pope ignored in devising Treaty of Westphalia Religion moved closer to individual matter, not
politics
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A Military Revolution
By 17th century, war was larger part of European affairs Military power essential to rulers reputation and power
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A Military Revolution
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, develop first standing army of conscripts Infantry brigades composed of equal musketeers and pikemen, standing 6 deep
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A Military Revolution
firing at once Pike charges Cavalry charges with swords Lighter artillery pieces moved in battle
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A Military Rebellion
Gustavus Adolphus men fired their muskets all at once instead of row by row Salvos were followed by pikecharge
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A Military Revolution
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Rebellions
Before/during/after Thirty Years War Rocked the stability of governments Monarchs attempted to extend control
Peasants and lower classes revolt Clergy, nobles and mercantile groups Throughout all Europe English Revolution most famous
Western Europe
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Absolutism
Ultimate authority Resting in the hands of a king Rules by divine right King Louis XIV
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His book, Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture
Government divinely ordained Humans must live in organized society
parliaments--except God
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Reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715) best example of absolute monarchy French culture, manners, and language reaches throughout Europe
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Both Louis XIII and XIV were just boys Dependent on competent ministers Richelieu eliminated military and political rights of Huguenots, but kept their religious ones
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was
cautious with nobles, understanding their important role Nobles excluded from central government and who claimed land independence were the dangerous ones
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Cardinal Richelieu
Efficient spy network Crushed conspiracies and executed conspirators Sent intendents out to effect government policies
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Cardinal Richelieu
revenues
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Cardinal Mazarin
Richelieu/Louis XIII die within months Louis XIV at four years old Richelieus trained successor, Mazarin, attempts to carry on Richelieus policies until his death in 1661 Naturalized citizen of France, from Italy Incurred some resentment from the people
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Cardinal Mazarin
money and builds resentment Many French resented Mazarin, a naturalized citizen from Italy
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Cardinal Mazarin
centralized power at the expense of nobles New taxes for Thirty Years War Nobles united, temporarily, united with members of parliament
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Cardinal Mazarin
The Parliament of Parismost important court in France First Fronde: formed by the nobles of the robelawyers and administrators
1648-1649: ended in
compromise
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Cardinal Mazarin
Most French concluded best bet was with the crown Louis XIV took over upon Mazarins death in 1661
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Expressed interest from the day of Mazarins death to be real king and take over Louis was 23 years old
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Louis had a proclivity of fun and games getting into the beds of maids in the royal palace Few people took him seriously at first
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He wrote, Up to this moment I have been pleased to entrust the government of my affairs to the late cardinal. It is now time that I govern them myself
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Louis was willing to pay the price of kingship He considered his royal profession grand, noble, and delightful Called the Sun Kingthe source of light for his people
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He set the standard for monarchies and aristocracies all over Europe
Grand spectacle in
his Versailles court Voltaire called 16611715 the Age of Louis XIV
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Versailles was self-contained government and home to Louis, his family and blood nobles He removed nobles and princes of noble blood from the Royal Councilthe chief administrative body of the king and overseer of the central machinery of government--and placed them in his court where he could watch them
Relied on ministers and other nobles Expected total loyalty I had no intention of sharing my authority with them
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He often bribed them Local officials could still block what they wanted to block Absolute in reality wasnt so absolute
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Religious policy
Religious harmony long an area of monarchial power Louis wanted to keep it and it led to conflict with Huguenots He didnt want Protestants to practice their faith in Catholic France
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Religious Policy
One king, one law, one faith Issued the Edict of Fountainebleu
Revoked the Edict of Nantes Destruction of Huguenot churches Closing of Protestant schools 200,000 Huguenots leave France, ma ny
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Financial Issues
Jean-Baptiste Colbert was controller of general finances His reforms increased revenues
Stressed mercantilism
Introduced new industries Built new infrastructure
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Financial Issues
Although Colbert was brilliant at obtaining revenues for Louiss high palaces, wars, and his opulent court, he spent the money as fast as it came in Peasants still paid highest price
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handed him his shirt At stake were offices, titles, and pensions
Palace was home to thousands of nobles, seat of Kings government, and reception hall
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There were strict protocols as to who could sit on what kind of chair, where, and within what proximity to the king
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France developed professional army of 100,000 men Army rose to 400,000 during time of war
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Waged war for power and prestige Wanted to ensure the domination of the Bourbon dynasty over European affairs
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Only two years after the peace treaty, Louis died Appeared to have some remorse
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To his successor, his great grandson, five years old at the time, he said,
Try to remain at peace with your neighbors Do not follow me in that (war) and
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Reign of Philip IV
Attempt to limit power of Catholic Church Involvement in Thirty Years War and civil wars resulted in exposing Spain for its weakness Peace of Westphalia and Peace of the Pyrenees meant giving up land and prestige
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Overview
During the seventeenth century, a development of great importance for the modern Western world took place in central and eastern Europe, the appearance of three new powers: Prussia, Austria, and Russia
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Evolved from lands originally Hohenzollern Foundation set by Frederick William the Elector Raised and maintained standing army Gave nobles unlimited power over peasants to support his policies Established mercantile policies Aided Holy Roman Emperor in War of Spanish Succession and officially granted title of King of Prussia
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Emperor Charles V defeats French armies Charles gives his son Phillip the duchy of Milan Charles transfers all imperial rights over Italy to Spain
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Austria gains Milan, Sardinia, and Naples and supplants Spain as dominant power in Italy
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Czar (Caesar)
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In 17th century, Russian society was highly stratified Abundance of land and shortage of peasants fostered serfdom-type to the land laws
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Unsettling conditions and frequent contacts with the west Western ideas began to take hold End of 17th century, Peter the Great accelerated western progress
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After trip to the West, he returned determined to westernize Russia Peter admired western technology Needed technology to modernize his military
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Formed first Russian navy Conscripted peasants for 25 years service Built standing army of 210,000 men
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Organized central government along Western lines Created senate for supervising administrative machinery of government while out of country
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Created colleges, boards of administrators, to supervise functions like foreign affairs, war, and justice
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Demanding those in landowning class serve in military or civic duty Created Table of Ranks, an opportunity for nonnobles to reach nobility and serve in the military
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Peter attempted to create a new nobility based on merit Peters efforts at new nobility was not continued by successors
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He absorbed fourfifths of revenues to support military Adopted Western mercantilism to stimulate growth
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Tried to increase exports by exploiting natural resources like iron Military needs were endless Relied too much on the usual, raising taxes on poor
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Sought to gain control of Russian Orthodox Church Eliminated patriarch Installed the Holy Synod
At the head was a
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Enforced dress codes on people arriving and leaving towns Anyone failing to conform were to be beaten without mercy
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Fostered social gatherings where men and women could meet, talk, dance, etc.
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Domestic reforms were to make Russia a great state and military power Wanted to open a window to the West
His only route was
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Battle of Poltava War dragged on for 12 years Peace of Nystadt gave formal recognition to Peter Peter acquired Estonia, Livonia, and karelia
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Peter achieved the great European state he sought Began construction of new grand city, Saint Petersburg
Window to the West Symbol of westward
looking
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Peter modernized Russia to the extent it became military power and important member of the European state system
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Western culture only reached upper classes Forceful ways of Peter resulted in many people not embracing Western culture
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Denmarks and Swedens territorial ambitions kept them at almost in constant rivalry in 17th century
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Denmark
Christian IV
Little success in
expansion Monarchs forced to share power with nobility War machine sustained losses in 30-Years War and Northern War
Bloodless revolution in 1660 Christian V established as monarch Absolutist constitution Nobility as chief officeholders
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Sweden
Sweden was poor compared to Denmark Gustavus Adolphus expanded central government
Nobility formed First
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Sweden
Swedens new stable monarchy helped Gustavus to create powerful military Killed, 30 Years War Strong central government and state building
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Sweden
His son, Charles XII, inherited a powerful state that dominated northern Europe Review
Strong monarchy Strong bureaucracy Weakened nobility
domestic order
King Charles XI weakened the nobility, subdued the church, and improved the military
Strong military
Weakened church
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Sweden
Charles XII interested in military prowess Tested his troops in conflicts with Poland, Denmark, and Russia
Conflicts resulted in
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Ottoman Empire replaced Byzantine Empire which sprang out of Roman Empire Began 1300 Mixture of cultures
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Advanced through Wallachia but were stopped by Hungarians from advancing further up Danube River From 1480 to 1520, internal problems held them back from advancement
Suleiman brought the Turks back to European attention Conquered Belgrade and Hungary Stopped at Vienna Advances made along the Mediterranean
Spanish fleet destroyed the Turkish fleet at Lepantootherwise, the Turks would have controlled the seas By early 17th century, Turks were starting to be accepted as European nation Ottoman Empire Advancements
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Ottoman politics could degenerate to bloody intrigues A sultan would kill his brothers to prevent from being overthrown Well-trained bureaucracy continued to administer state affairs
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Well organized military added to strength of Ottoman Empire Janissaries were Christian boys taken from parents, converted to Muslims, highly trained, loyal to Sultan Elite core of 8,000 troops
Sleeping giant Threatened by challenge from Persia Content with status quo
New line of viziers Marched through Hungarians and laid siege to Vienna Repulsed by mixed army of Austrians, Poles, Bavarians, and Saxons Never threatened Europe again
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Monarchies power not absolute Most people dealt with local authorities Kings policies not guaranteed to be followed
There were entire bureaucracies of people with authorities Most successful kings used the old system to best advantage Landowners had great power
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The merger of Poland and Lithuania in 1569 resulted in largest Christendom kingdom at that time In the beginning, the nobles elected the king
Power of nobles enabled them to hold on to serfdom Merger involved the merger of the Jagiello dynasty
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alliances
Swede Sigismund III had vision of vast polish empire that caused the state to be weak and decentralized
assembly
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Atlantic power Shift in economic power from Mediterranean to the Atlantic seaboard
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The seven northern provinces of the Netherlands, calling themselves the United Provinces of the Netherlands, became the core of the modern Dutch state
Internal dissension
William of Orange
and heirs wanted a strong central monarch The States General wanted a decentralized republic
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A trading power, the Dutch began to experience a decline by 1715 due to wars with France and England
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By the beginning of the 17th century, Amsterdam replaced Antwerp as the economic capital of Europe
Made possible of vast
Dutch invention of fluytshallow draft shipadded to capacity of ship for carrying goods
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Chief port for Dutch West Indian and East Indian trading companies City industries turned raw materials into finished goods
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As a financial center, trading profits provided much capital for investment The Exchange Bank of Amsterdam founded in 1609
commodities
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Wealthy merchants were able to control much of the governmental activities of the Dutch Calvinist backgrounds led to simple lifestyle
Second half of 17th century, these wealthy burghers reduced their simple lifestyle and began wearing more colorful clothes
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as to which would dominate, the king or the parliament Complicated by religious issues
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The death of Queen Elizabeth ended the Tudor dynasty and ushered in the Stuart line King James VI of Scotland became Kings James I of England
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England was used to a balanced system with the king and parliament sharing power, a balanced polity James believed, however, in the divine right of kings
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The English Puritans also wanted James to eliminate the episcopal system of church organization James knew the Anglican church, bishops appointed by the crown, would help him govern
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James conflict continues with son Charles I Charles reneged on Petition of Right
Parliament must
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Charles married to Henrietta Marie, Catholic, raising suspicions about his religious inclinations Charles and William laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, introduced more ritual into Anglican services
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Charles and William attempted to impose Book of Common Prayer on to the Scottish Presbyterian church
Scots rose up in
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Charles was forced to call parliament into session Parliament dealt Charles broadsides which limited his authority
Political battles lasted 1640-1660 Triennial Act ruled parliament must meet each three years Some members pushed for more change
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Split in Parliament between more radical members who wanted to make more changes Charles tried to take advantage by arresting them
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Response to Charles attempts was met by John Pym and fellow Puritans England slipped into civil war
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extreme Puritans Known as Independents Believed to be doing battle for the Lord
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Statement by Cromwell
Sir, this is none other
than the hand of God; and to Him alone belongs the glory
With the aid of the New Model Army, parliament captured Charles
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Charles to the throne Charles takes advantage of disagreement and flees to the Scots
House of Commons tries and condemns Charles and beheads him, highly unusual act at that time
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Catholic uprising in Ireland and an uprising in Scotland Cromwell did so in a most brutal way Irish and Scots despised him
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Cromwell faced opposition at home from groups with new agendas Most formidable of groups was Levellers
Freedom of speech
Cont>
Right to vote for male
householders over 21 Annual parliaments Womens equality with men Government programs to care for poor
Freedom of religion
Democratic republic
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To Cromwell, a country gentleman, only people of property had the right to participate in the affairs of state Cromwell, you have no other way to deal with these men but to break them.
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Cromwell would smash the Levellers by force Finding it difficult to deal with the parliament, he dispersed it y force
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The army provided a new government and drew up the Instrument of Government
Executive power
11 regions each ruled by major general Levied 10% tax on all Royalists
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Cromwell died in 1658 Monarchy was reestablished as Charles II, eldest son of Charles I Stuart monarchy restored
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Charles II accepted parliaments approval of taxes and abolition of arbitrary courts Parliament restored the Anglican church as official church of England
Laws passed to force Catholics and Puritan dissenters to conform to the church Charles was sympathetic to Catholics and James, his brother, was Catholic
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Tories
Support king (despite
Whigs
Exclude James Protestant king
dislike for James and Catholics) Parliament should not tamper with rightful succession to thrown
Tolerate dissenters
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subsidies
Opened wounds between king and parliament James named Catholics to high government positions, contrary to Test Act
Catholic
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barring Catholics and Dissenters from office Parliament stopped short of rebellion because he was old man Successors were Protestant sisters
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But, June 10, 1688, a son was born to James IIs second wife, also Catholic Fired Catholic officeholders for failing to move the England quickly to Catholicism
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A Glorious Revolution
Group of seven prominent English noblemen invited William of Orange (pictured) to invade England James had failed to work with parliament and had abused his powers other ways
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A Glorious Revolution
William, ongoing foe of King Louis XIV of France, fighting Louis with the Dutch and always trying to stop the spread of France Devout Protestant
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A Glorious Revolution
William and Mary (pictured) raised an army and James fled with family to France
Their army was
Little bloodshed
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A Glorious Revolution
The revolution was fought not over whether there would be a monarch, but who would be the monarch James made last effort at Battle of Boyne (pictured) but was defeated
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The Revolution Settlement confirmed William and Mary as monarchs The people in general accepted the monarchs with open arms
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In 1689, the Convention Parliament asserted James had tried to subvert the constitution and they then offered the monarchy to William and Mary (pictured as cousins)
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William and Mary accepted the throne on the provisions provided under the Bill of Rights, 1688 (pictured)
Laid the foundation
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Bill of Rights
Affirmed Parliaments
right to make laws and levy taxes Made it impossible for kings to oppose or do without Parliament Standing armies raised only with Parliaments consent
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debates of Parliament had to be free Rights of citizens to petition the sovereign, keep arms, jury trial, and no excessive bail
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government based on rule of law Freely elected Parliament Established foundation for constitutional monarchy
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Toleration Act didnt mean complete religious freedom and equality, but few people were ever again persecuted for religious reasons
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The Glorious Revolution is seen as end of 17th century struggle between king and Parliament
Parliament now had
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Over the next century, Parliament would prove to be the real authority in the English system Picture: Teams of horses used to pull cannon during conflicts
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Responses to Revolution
The English revolutions prompted different responses from two English political thinkers
Thomas Hobbes John Locke (pictured)
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Responses to Revolution
Generally, Hobbes (pictured) was for the absolute rule of man and Locke was against it
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Responses to Revolution
In natures state, human life (before society) was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short Humans led by animal instincts, not reason Ruthless struggle for self preservation (continued next slide)
Argued against absolute rule of one man Wrote, Two Treatise of Government Early state of nature for man was state of equality and freedom Humans had inalienable rights
Thomas Hobbes
John Locke
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Responses to Revolution
To save themselves, (war of man against man) man contracted to form a commonwealth
The great Leviathon, or that
mortal god
Commonwealth placed powers into hands of a sovereign authority (Continued next slide)
Since there was no impartial judge found in nature, people founded government to mutually protect their rights Government and people had mutual obligations
Thomas Hobbes
John Locke
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Responses to Revolution
legislator, and judge Possessed unlimited power Subjects may not rebel
Government would protect rights People would act reasonable toward government If government broke its agreement, people could form a new government (Continued next slide)
Thomas Hobbes
John Locke
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Responses to Revolution
Community of people was primarily landholding aristocracy represented in Parliament Not advocate of political democracy Ideas important in American and French revolutions
John Locke
John Locke
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European culture continued to flourish. The era was blessed with many prominent artists and writers
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Mannerism
Mannerism reflects uncertainty, suffering, anxiety, and yearning for spiritual experience
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Mannerism
Mannerism derives from critics who considered these contemporary artists to be second-rate imitators Painters who painted in the manner of a great artist
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Mannerism
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Mannerism replaced by Baroque Embraced by Catholic reform movement Sought to combine classical ideals of Renaissance art with religious revival of 16th century
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Known for dramatic effects to arouse emotion Reflected search for power
Large part of 17th
century ethos
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Dramatic effects of high emotional intensity Bodies in violent motion Heavily fleshed nudes Restless forms Violent movement
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Perhaps greatest figure of the baroque was Italian architect and sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini
Completed Saint
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Action, exuberance, profusion, and dramatic effects mark the works of Bernini Throne of Saint Peter
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In his most striking sculptural work, Ecstacy of Saint Theresa, Bernini depicts a moment of mystical experience in the life of the 16th century saint
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Artemisia Gentilischi
Successful career as
painter At 23, first woman elected to Florentine Academy of Design Known for pictures of heroines from Old Testament Judith Beheading Holofernes
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French Classicism
Second half of 17th century, France replaced Italy as cultural center of Europe Preferred High Renaissance Classicism
Classicism
Clarity
Simplicity Balance Harmony of design Rejected baroque
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French Classicism
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Dutch Realism
Wealthy Dutch patricians and burghers commissioned works for buildings Not classical or baroque, Dutch were interested in realistic portrayal of secular life
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Dutch Realism
secular road Half of his paintings are Biblical He is the one great Protestant painter of the 17th century
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Dutch Realism
Judith Leyster
Portrayed everyday
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Except for academic fields, Latin was no longer the universal language Greatest English theater is called Elizabethan
Much of cultural flowering of English culture was during reign of Queen Elizabeth Elizabethan literature exhibits England international exploits
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William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare
Complete man of the
theater Writer, actor, and company shareholder Long recognized as a universal genius Master of English language
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William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare
In tragedies and comedies, Shakespeare showed remarkable understanding of the human condition Portrait of Shakespeare being nursed by two characters (pictured)
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Professional theaters opened in Madrid and Seville in 1590s Lope de Vega wrote over 1500 plays that survive today Picture from one of his plays, Villains and Villeins
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French Drama
French playwrights wrote for elite audience and were forced into support from royal patronage Louis XIV used theater to attract attention to his monarchy
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French Drama
Jean-Baptiste Moliere
Enjoyed patronage of
King Louis XIV Produced and acted in series of comedies and satires
Religious and social
The Paris clergy had his play Taruffe banned for five years
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Conclusion
The divisive effects of the Reformation had been assimilated and the concept of a united Christendom was destroyed by religious wars
The door to power politics was now open Secular power of the state reflected the changes in 17th century society
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Conclusion
Certain governmental machinery made it possible for growing centralization and power and more a move to absolutism
In England, landed aristocracy gained power and set the stage for a constitutional monarchy
Parliament became
focus of power
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Conclusion
Concern for power and expansion led to conflict Religious concerns were losing ground to secularism Transition to more secular Western civilization
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