Nuclear Power Plants

map: Nuclear Energy Institute

Energy Sources in the United States
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 307
Wood Coal Petroleum / natural gas Hydro and nuclear
1850
100
80
60
40
20
0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

9
91
1900
21
71
5
3
1940
10
50
40
1980
20
70
10
1990
26
58
16
2005
50
21
26
Energy Sources in the United States
Source: US Energy Information Administration (2005 Electricity Generation)
Renewable
(biomass, geothermal, solar, wind)
Coal Petroleum
Hydroelectric
1850
100
80
60
40
20
0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

9
91
2005
50
7
3
natural gas
Nuclear
19
19
3
Coal Burning Power Plant
Copyright 2007 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
Nuclear Power Plant
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 621
Reactor Core
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 622
Hot coolant
Control rods of
neutron-absorbing
substance
Uranium in fuel
cylinders
Incoming coolant
Copyright 2006 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
Production of heat Production of electricity
Nuclear Power Plant

We're not afraid of the alpha ray.
A sheet of paper will keep it away!
A beta ray needs much more care,
Place sheets of metal here and there.
And as for the powerful gamma ray
(Pay careful heed to what we say)
Unless you wish to spend weeks in bed
Take cover behind thick slabs of lead!
Fast neutrons pass through everything.
Wax slabs remove their nasty sting.
These slow them down, and even a moron
Knows they can be absorbed by boron.
Remember, remember all that we've said,
Because it's no use remembering when you're dead.
Chant of the Radioactive Workers
Inside a nuclear power plant.
Nuclear Waste
Disposal
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 626
Surface
deposits
Host rock
formation
Interbed
rock layer
Aquifier
Aquifier
Interbed
rock layer
Bedrock
River
Shaft
Repository
Waste
package
Waste
form
20 g


10 g
5 g
2.5 g
after
1 half-life
Start
after
2 half-lives
after
3 half-lives
Half-Life
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter 3rd Edition, page 757


1.00 mg















0.875 mg


0.500 mg

0.250 mg
0.125 mg
8.02 days
0.00 days
16.04 days 24.06 days
Half-Life
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter 3rd Edition, page 757




131
53
I
131
53
I
0.500 mg
0.750 mg
| emissions
emissions
89.9%
7.3%
131
53
I
131
54
Xe
131
54
Xe*
131
54
Xe
I
131
53
Xe
131
54
|

0
-1
+

+
0 1 2 3 4
Number of half-lives
R
a
d
i
o
i
s
o
t
o
p
e

r
e
m
a
i
n
i
n
g

(
%
)

100
50
25
12.5
Half-life of Radiation
Initial amount
of radioisotope
t
1/2

t
1/2

t
1/2

After 1 half-life
After 2 half-lives
After 3 half-lives
Half-Life Plot
Timberlake, Chemistry 7
th
Edition, page 104
A
m
o
u
n
t

o
f

I
o
d
i
n
e
-
1
3
1

(
g
)

20
15
10
5
0
40 48 56 0 8
1 half-life
16
2 half-lives
24
3 half-lives
32
4 half-lives
etc
Time (days)
Half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days
Half-Life of Isotopes
Isotope Half-Live Radiation emitted
Half-Life and Radiation of Some Naturally Occurring Radioisotopes
Carbon-14
5.73 x 10
3
years |
Potassium-40 1.25 x 10
9
years |.
Thorium-234
24.1 days |.
Radon-222 3.8 days o
Radium-226 1.6 x 10
3
years
o.
Thorium-230 7.54 x 10
4
years o.
Uranium-235
7.0 x 10
8
years
o.
Uranium-238 4.46 x 10
9
years
o
Half-life (t

)
Time required for half the atoms of a
radioactive nuclide to decay.
Shorter half-life = less stable.
1
/
2
1
/
4
1
/
8
1
/
16
1/1
1/2
1/4
1/8
1/16
0
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

R
e
m
a
i
n
i
n
g

P
o
t
a
s
s
i
u
m
-
4
0

A
t
o
m
s

t
o

O
r
i
g
i
n
a
l

P
o
t
a
s
s
i
u
m
-
4
0

A
t
o
m
s

0 1 half-life
1.3
2 half-lives
2.6
3 half-lives
3.9
4 half-lives
5.2
Time (billions of years)
Newly formed
rock
Potassium
Argon
Calcium
Half-life (t

)
Time required for half the atoms of a
radioactive nuclide to decay.
Shorter half-life = less stable.
1/1
1/2
1/4
1/8
1/16
0
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

R
e
m
a
i
n
i
n
g

P
o
t
a
s
s
i
u
m
-
4
0

A
t
o
m
s

t
o

O
r
i
g
i
n
a
l

P
o
t
a
s
s
i
u
m
-
4
0

A
t
o
m
s

0 1 half-life
1.3
2 half-lives
2.6
3 half-lives
3.9
4 half-lives
5.2
Time (billions of years)
Newly formed
rock
Potassium
Argon
Calcium
How Much Remains?
After one half-life, of the original atoms remain.
After two half-lives, x = 1/(2
2
) = of the original atoms remain.
After three half-life, x x = 1/(2
3
) = of the original atoms remain.
After four half-life, x x x = 1/(2
4
) = of the original atoms remain.
After five half-life, x x x x = 1/(2
5
) = of the original atoms remain.
After six half-life, x x x x x = 1/(2
6
) = of the original atoms remain.
1
4
1
2
1
8
1
16
1
32
1
64
1 half-life 2 half-lives 3 half-lives
1
2
1
4
1
8
1
16
1
32
1
64
1
128
Accumulating
daughter
isotopes
4 half-lives 5 half-lives 6 half-lives 7 half-lives
Surviving
parent
isotopes
Beginning
SOURCE: Collaboration for NDT Education MATT PERRY / Union-Tribune
1. A small piece of
fossil is burned in
a special furnace.
2. The burning creates carbon
dioxide gas comprised of carbon-12
isotopes and carbon-14 isotopes.
3. As the carbon-
14 decays into
nitrogen-14, it
emits an electron.
4. A radiation
counter records
the number of
electrons emitted.
Stable
C-12 isotope
Nitrogen
Electron
Decaying
C-14 isotope
Note: Not to scale.
The iodine-131 nuclide has a half-life of 8 days. If you originally have a
625-g sample, after 2 months you will have approximately?
a. 40 g
b. 20 g
c. 10 g
d. 5 g
e. less than 1 g
625 g
312 g
156 g
78 g
39 g
20 g
10 g
5 g
2.5 g
1.25 g
0 d
8 d
16 d
24 d
32 d
40 d
48 d
56 d
64 d
72 d
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Data Table: Half-life Decay
~ Amount Time # Half-Life
Assume 30 days = 1 month
60 days
8 days
= 7.5 half-lives
N = N
o
(
1
/
2
)
n
N = amount remaining
N
o
= original amount
n = # of half-lives
N = (625 g)(
1
/
2
)
7.5
N = 3.45 g

ln 2
Given that the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years, consider a
sample of fossilized wood that, when alive, would have contained
24 g of carbon-14. It now contains 1.5 g of carbon-14.
How old is the sample?
24 g
12 g
6 g
3 g
1.5 g

0 y
5,730 y
11,460 y
17,190 y
22,920 y

0
1
2
3
4

Data Table: Half-life Decay
Amount Time # Half-Life
ln = - k t
N
N
o
t
1/2
=
0.693
k

5730 y =
0.693
k

k = 1.209 x 10
-4
ln = - (1.209x10
-4
) t
1.5 g
24 g

t = 22,933 years
Half-Life Practice Calculations
The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. If a sample originally contained
3.36 g of C-14, how much is present after 22,920 years?

Gold-191 has a half-life of 12.4 hours. After one day and 13.2 hours, 10.6 g
of gold-19 remains in a sample. How much gold-191 was originally present
in the sample?

There are 3.29 g of iodine-126 remaining in a sample originally containing
26.3 g of iodine-126. The half-life of iodine-126 is 13 days. How old is the
sample?

A sample that originally contained 2.5 g of rubidium-87 now contains 1.25 g.
The half-life of rubidium-87 is 6 x 10
10
years. How old is the sample? Is this
possible? Why or why not?
Demo: Try to cut a string in half seven times (if it begins your arms length).
0.21 g C-14
84.8 g Au-191
39 days old
6 x 10
10
years
(60,000,000,000 billions years old)
What is the age of Earth???
22,920 years
The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. If a sample originally contained
3.36 g of C-14, how much is present after 22,920 years?
3.36 g
1.68 g
0.84 g
0.42 g
0.21 g

0 y
5,730 y
11,460 y
17,190 y
22,920 y

0
1
2
3
4

Data Table: Half-life Decay
Amount Time # Half-Life
t
1/2
= 5730 years
n =
5,730 years
n = 4 half-lives
(4 half-lives)(5730 years) = age of sample
(# of half-lives)(half-life) = age of sample
22,920 years
Uranium Radioactive Decay
U-238
206
210
214
218
222
226
230
234
238
M
a
s
s

n
u
m
b
e
r

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
Atomic number
Th-230
o
Th-234
o
Ra-226
o
Rn-222
o
Po-218
o
Pb-206
o
Pb-214
o
Pb-210
o
Pa-234
|
Bi-214
|
Po-214
|
Bi-210
|
Po-210
|
U-234
|
4.5 x 10
9
y
24 d
1.2 m
2.5 x 10
5
y
8.0 x 10
4
y
1600 y
3.8 d
3.0 m
27 m
160 us
5.0 d
138 d
stable
Nuclear
Stability
Decay will occur in
such a way as to
return a nucleus to
the band (line) of
stability.
Protons (Z)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
140


130


120


110


100


90


80


70


60


50


40


30


20


10


0
N
e
u
t
r
o
n
s

(
N
)

Copyright 2007 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
Band of
Stability
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

n
e
u
t
r
o
n
s

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Stable nuclides
Naturally occurring radioactive nuclides
Other known nuclides
Number of protons
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
n = p
o decay
| decay
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Protons (Z)
N
e
u
t
r
o
n
s

(
N
)

184
74
W
107
47
Ag
56
26
Fe
20
10
Ne
209
83
Bi
positron emission and/or
electron capture
|
.
|

\
|
=1.15
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1.0
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1.28
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1.52
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1.49
Z
N
o decay
| decay
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Protons (Z)
N
e
u
t
r
o
n
s

(
N
)

184
74
W
107
47
Ag
56
26
Fe
20
10
Ne
209
83
Bi
positron emission and/or
electron capture
|
.
|

\
|
=1.15
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1.0
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1.28
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1.52
Z
N
|
.
|

\
|
=1.49
Z
N
Nuclear
Stability
Decay will occur in
such a way as to
return a nucleus to
the band (line) of
stability.
Half-Lives of Some Isotopes of Carbon
Nuclide Half-Life

Carbon-9 0.127 s
Carbon-10 19.3 s
Carbon-11 10.3 m
Carbon-12 Stable
Carbon-13 Stable
Carbon-14 5715 y
Carbon-15 2.45 s
Carbon-16 0.75 s
Enlargement of part of band of stability around Neon
Ne
23
10
Ne
19
10
moves into band of
stability by beta decay.
Ne
23
10
Ne
21
10
Ne
22
10
Ne
20
10
F
19
9
Na
23
11
Umland and Bellama, General Chemistry 2
nd
Edition, page 773
Na Ne
23
11
0
1 -
23
10
+ |
F Ne
19
9
0
1
19
10
+ |
moves into band of stability
by positron emission. Electron
capture would also move
into the band of stability.
Ne
19
10
F
19
9
Effects of Radioactive Emissions
on Proton and Neutrons
Number of protons
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

p
r
o
t
o
n
s

Loss of
e
0
1 -
Loss of or
electron capture
e
0
1
Loss of
He
4
2
Nuclear Decay
223
88
4
2
219
86
Rn o Ra +
2+
H
14
7
4
2
17
8
1
1
O o N + +
2+
87
37
0
-1
87
38
Sr | Rb +
n
1
0
+
2
1
2
1
4
2
He H H +
14
6
0
-1
17
7
N | C +
3
1
2
1
4
2
He H H +
Alpha Beta Positron Gamma



neutron proton
4
2
o
2+
0
-1
|
n
1
0
H
1
1
1+
0
+1
|
0
0

absorption, bombardment vs. production, emission
Units Used in Measurement
of Radioactivity
Curie (C)
Becquerel (Bq)
Roentgens (R)
Rad (rad)
Rem (rem)
radioactive decay
radioactive decay
exposure to ionizing radiation
energy absorption caused by ionizing radiation
biological effect of the absorbed dose in humans
Units Measurements
Effects of Instantaneous Whole-Body
Radiation Doses on People
Dose, Sv (rem) Effect

>10 (1000) Death within 24 h from destruction of the neurological
system.
7.5 (750) Death within 4-30 d from gastrointestinal bleeding.

1.5 7.5 (150 750) Intensive hospital care required for survival. At the
higher end of range, death through infection resulting
from destruction of white-blood cell-forming organs
usually takes place 4 8 weeks after accident.
Those surviving this period usually recover.

< 0.5 (50) Only proven effect is decrease in white blood cell count.
Alexander Litvinenko
The intensity of radiation is
proportional to
1
/
d
2
, where d is the
distance from the source.
Alpha, Beta, Positron Emission
Examples of Nuclear Decay Processes
o emission
(alpha)
|

emission
(beta)
|
+
emission
(positron)
Th He U
234
90
4
2
238
92
+
Ra He Th
226
88
4
2
230
90
+
Rn He Ra
222
86
4
2
226
88
+
Al Mg
27
13
0
1 -
27
12
+ e
Cl S
35
17
0
1 -
35
16
+ e
Ca K
40
20
0
1 -
40
19
+ e
N O
14
7
0
1
14
8
+
+
e
S Cl
32
16
0
1
32
17
+
+
e
N O
14
7
0
1
14
8
+
+
e
Although beta emission involves electrons, those electrons come from the nucleus. Within the nucleus,
a neutron decays into a proton and an electron. The electron is emitted, leaving behind a proton to
replace the neutron, thus transforming the element. (A neutrino is also produced and emitted in the process.)
Herron, Frank, Sarquis, Sarquis, Schrader, Kulka, Chemistry, Heath Publishing,1996, page 275
Nuclear Reactions
Rn Ra
222
86
4
2
226
88
+
p O N
1
1
17
8
4
2
14
7
+ + o
n C Be
1
0
12
6
4
2
9
4
+ + o
n 3 Kr Ba n U
1
0
92
36
141
56
1
0
235
92
+ + +
First recognized natural transmutation of an element (Rutherford and Soddy, 1902)
First artificial transmutation of an element (Rutherford, 1919)
Discovery of the neutron (Chadwick, 1932)
Discovery of nuclear fission (Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman, 1939)
?
?
Bailar, Chemistry, pg 361
Preparation of Transuranium Elements
93 Neptunium Np 1940


94 Plutonium Pu 1940




95 Americium Am 1944


96 Curium Cm 1945


97 Berkelium Bk 1949


98 Californium Cf 1950

e Np n U
0
1 -
239
93
1
0
238
92
+ +
n 2 Np H U
1
0
238
93
2
1
238
92
+ +
e Pu Np
0
1 -
238
94
238
93
+
e Am n Pu
0
1 -
240
95
1
0
239
94
+ +
n Cm He Pu
1
0
242
96
4
2
239
94
+ +
n 2 Bk He Am
1
0
243
97
4
2
241
95
+ +
n Cf He Cm
1
0
245
98
4
2
242
96
+ +
Atomic
Number
Name Symbol
Year
Discovered
Reaction
Ralph A. Burns, Fundamentals of Chemistry 1999, page 553
Preparation of Transuranium Elements
93 Neptunium Np 1940


94 Plutonium Pu 1940




95 Americium Am 1944


96 Curium Cm 1945


97 Berkelium Bk 1949


98 Californium Cf 1950

e Np n U
0
1 -
239
93
1
0
238
92
+ +
n 2 Np H U
1
0
238
93
2
1
238
92
+ +
e Pu Np
0
1 -
238
94
238
93
+
e Am n Pu
0
1 -
240
95
1
0
239
94
+ +
n Cm He Pu
1
0
242
96
4
2
239
94
+ +
n 2 Bk He Am
1
0
243
97
4
2
241
95
+ +
n Cf He Cm
1
0
245
98
4
2
242
96
+ +
Atomic
Number
Name Symbol
Year
Discovered
Reaction
Ralph A. Burns, Fundamentals of Chemistry 1999, page 553
Additional Transuranium Elements
99 Einsteinium Es 1952
100 Fermium Fm 1952
101 Mendelevium Md 1955
102 Nobelium Nb 1958
103 Lawrencium Lr 1961
104 Rutherfordium Rf 1964
105 Dubnium Db 1970
106 Seaborgium Sg 1974
107 Bohrium Bh 1981
108 Hassium Hs 1984
109 Meitnerium Mt 1988
110 Darmstadtium Ds 1994
111 Unununium Uun 1994
112 Ununbium Uub 1996
114 Uuq 1999 (Russia)
116 2002 (Russia)
118 2006

CHAPTER 22

Nuclear
Chemistry
I. The Nucleus
(p. 701 - 704)
I
IV
III
II
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Nuclear Binding Energy
Unstable nuclides are radioactive and undergo radioactive decay.
U-238
10x10
8
9x10
8
8x10
8
7x10
8
6x10
8
5x10
8
4x10
8
3x10
8
2x10
8
1x10
8
Fe-56
B-10
Li-6
H-2
He-4
0

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Mass number
B
i
n
d
i
n
g

e
n
e
r
g
y

p
e
r

n
u
c
l
e
o
n

(
k
J
/
m
o
l
)

Nuclear Binding Energy
Unstable nuclides are radioactive and undergo radioactive decay.
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

b
i
n
d
i
n
g

e
n
e
r
g
y

p
e
r

n
u
c
l
e
o
n

(
M
e
V
)

CHAPTER 22

Nuclear
Chemistry
II. Radioactive
Decay
(p. 705 - 712)
I
IV
III
II
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

He
4
2
Types of Radiation
Alpha particle (o)
helium nucleus
paper
2+
Beta particle (|
-
)
electron
e
0
-1
1-
lead
Positron (|
+
)
positron
e
0
1 +
1+
Gamma ()
high-energy photon
0
concrete
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Nuclear Decay
Alpha Emission
He Th U
4
2
234
90
238
92
+
parent
nuclide
daughter
nuclide
alpha
particle
Numbers must balance!!
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Nuclear Decay
Beta Emission
e Xe I
0
-1
131
54
131
53
+
electron
Positron Emission
e Ar K
0
1
38
18
38
19 +
+
positron
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Nuclear Decay
Electron Capture
Pd e Ag
106
46
0
-1
106
47
+
electron
Gamma Emission
Usually follows other types of decay.
Transmutation
One element becomes another.
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
N
e
u
t
r
o
n
s

(
A
-
Z
)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Protons (Z)
Nuclear Decay
Why nuclides decay
need stable ratio of neutrons to protons
He Th U
4
2
234
90
238
92
+
e Xe I
0
-1
131
54
131
53
+
e Ar K
0
1
38
18
38
19 +
+
Pd e Ag
106
46
0
-1
106
47
+
DECAY SERIES TRANSPARENCY
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

|
P = N
e
-
capture
or
e
+
emission
o
stable
nuclei
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
N
e
u
t
r
o
n
s

(
A
-
Z
)

P = N
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Protons (Z)
stable
nuclei
e
-
capture
or
e
+
emission
| o
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
N
e
u
t
r
o
n
s

(
A
-
Z
)

P = N
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Protons (Z)
stable
nuclei
Why nuclides decay
need stable ratio of neutrons to protons
Nuclear Decay