CPO Science Foundations of Physics

Unit 8, Chapter 27

Unit 8: Matter and Energy

Chapter 27 The Physical Properties of Matter 27.1 Properties of Solids 27.2 Properties of Liquids and Fluids 27.3 Properties of Gases

Chapter 27 Objectives
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Perform calculations involving the density of solids, gases, and liquids. Apply the concepts of force, stress, strain, and tensile strength to simple structures. Describe the cause and some consequences of thermal expansion in solids, liquids, and gases. Explain the concept of pressure and calculate pressure caused by the weight of fluids. Explain how pressure is created on a molecular level. Understand and apply Bernoullis equation to flow along a streamline. Apply the gas laws to simple problems involving pressure, temperature, mass, and volume.

Chapter 27 Vocabulary Terms

stress density strain tensile strength cross section area pressure volume tension compression elastic, elasticity fluid brittle ductile safety factor modulus of elasticity alloy airfoil buoyancy fluid mechanics ideal gas law Boyles law streamline laminar flow turbulent flow Bernoullis equation pascal (Pa) Charles law gas constant (R) composite material thermal expansion

27.1 Properties of Solids

Key Question: How do you measure the strength of a solid material?

*Students read Section 27.1 AFTER Investigation 27.1

27.1 Properties of Solids

The density of a material is the ratio of mass to volume.

Density is a physical property of the material and stays the same no matter how much material you have.

27.1 Density
Most engineers and scientists use the greek letter rho () to represent density.

Density (kg/m3)

r=m
V

Mass (kg)

Volume (m3 or L)

27.1 Densities of Common Materials

Which materials are less dense than water?

27.1 Properties of Solids

The concept of physical strength means the ability of an object to hold its form even when force is applied.
To evaluate the properties of materials, it is sometimes necessary to separate out the effects of design, such as shape and size.

27.1 Stress
The stress in a material is the ratio of the force acting through the material divided by the cross section area through which the force is carried. The metric unit of stress is the pascal (Pa).

One pascal is equal to one newton of force per square meter of area (1 N/m2). Stress (N/m2)

s=F
A

Force (N)

Area (m2)

27.1 Properties of Solids

26.1 Properties of Solids

A thicker wire can support more force at the same stress as a thinner wire because the cross section area is increased.

26.1 Tensile strength

The tensile strength is the stress at which a material breaks under a tension force.

The tensile strength also describes how materials break in bending.

27.1 Tensile strength

27.1 Properties of solids

The safety factor is the ratio of how strong something is compared with how strong it has to be. The safety factor allows for things that might weaken the wire (like rust) or things you did not consider in the design (like heavier loads). A safety factor of 10 means you choose the wire to have a breaking strength of 10,000 newtons, 10 times stronger than it has to be.

27.1 Evaluate 3 Designs

Three designs have been proposed for supporting a section of road. Each design uses three supports spaced at intervals along the road. A total of 4.5 million N of force is required to hold up the road. Evaluate the strength of each design. The factor of safety must be 5 or higher even when the road is bumper-to-bumper on all 4 lanes with the heaviest possible trucks.

27.1 Evaluate Design #1

High strength steel tubes Cross section = 0.015 m2 Tensile strength = 600 Mpa

27.1 Evaluate Design #2

Aluminum alloy tubes Cross section = 0.015 m2 Tensile strength = 290 Mpa

27.1 Evaluate Design #3

Steel cables Cross section = 0.03 m2 Tensile strength = 400 Mpa

27.1 Properties of solids

Elasticity measures the ability of a material to stretch.
The strain is the amount a material has been deformed, divided by its original size.

27.1 Strain
The Greek letter epsilon () is usually used to represent strain.
Change in length (m)

Strain

e = Dl
l

Original length (m)

27.1 Properties of solids

The modulus of elasticity plays the role of the spring constant for solids.
A material is elastic when it can take a large amount of strain before breaking. A brittle material breaks at a very low value of strain.

27.1 Modulus of Elasticity

27.1 Stress for solids

Calculating stress for solids is similar to using Hooke's law for springs.
Stress and strain take the place of force and distance in the formula:
Modulus of elasticity (pa) Stress (Mpa)

s = -E e
Strain

27.1 Properties of solids

The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how much a material expands for each change in temperature. Concrete bridges always have expansion joints. The amount of contraction or expansion is equal to the temperature change times the coefficient of thermal expansion.

27.1 Thermal Expansion

Change in length (m) Coefficient of thermal expansion

Dl = a (T2-T1)
l
Original length (m)

Change in temperature (oC)

27.1 Thermal Expansion

Which substances will expand or contract the most with temperature changes?

27.1 Plastic
Plastics are solids formed from long chain molecules.
Different plastics can have a wide range of physical properties including strength, elasticity, thermal expansion, and density.

27.1 Metal
Metals that bend and stretch easily without cracking are ductile.
The properties of metals can be changed by mixing elements. An alloy is a metal that is a mixture of more than one element. Steel is an alloy.

27.1 Wood
Many materials have different properties in different directions. Wood has a grain that is created by the way trees grow. Wood is very difficult to break against the grain, but easy to break along the grain. A karate chop easily breaks wood along its grain.

27.1 Composite materials

Composite materials are made from strong fibers supported by much weaker plastic. Like wood, composite materials tend to be strongest in a preferred direction. Fiberglass and carbon fiber are two examples of useful composite materials.

27.2 Properties of Liquids and Fluids

Key Question:
What are some implications of Bernoullis equation?

*Students read Section 27.2 AFTER Investigation 27.2

27.2 Properties of Liquids and Fluids

Fluids can change shape and flow when forces are applied to them. Gas is also a fluid because gases can change shape and flow. Density, buoyancy and pressure are three properties exhibited by liquids and gases.

27.2 Density vs. Buoyancy

The density of a liquid is the ratio of mass to volume, just like the density of a solid.
An object submerged in liquid feels an upward force called buoyancy. The buoyancy force is exactly equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the object. Objects sink if the buoyancy force is less than their own weight.

27.2 Pressure
Forces applied to fluids create pressure instead of stress.
Pressure is force per unit area, like stress. A pressure of 1 N/m2 means a force of one newton acts on each square meter.

27.2 Pressure
Like stress, pressure is a ratio of force per unit area.
Unlike stress however, pressure acts in all directions, not just the direction of the applied force.

27.2 Pressure
The concept of pressure is central to understanding how fluids behave within themselves and also how fluids interact with surfaces, such as containers. If you put a box with holes underwater, pressure makes water flow in from all sides. Pressure exerts equal force in all directions in liquids that are not moving.

27.2 Properties of liquids and gases

Gravity is one cause of pressure because fluids have weight. Air is a fluid and the atmosphere of the Earth has a pressure. The pressure of the atmosphere decreases with altitude.

27.2 Properties of liquids and gases

The pressure at any point in a liquid is created by the weight of liquid above that point.

27.2 Pressure in liquids

The pressure at the same depth is the same everywhere in any liquid that is not moving.
Pressure (pa or N/m2) Density (kg/m3)

P=rgd

Depth (m)

Strength of gravity (9.8 N/kg)

27.2 Calculate pressure

Calculate the pressure 1,000 meters below the surface of the ocean.
The density of water is 1,000 kg/m3. The pressure of the atmosphere is 101,000 Pa.

Compare the pressure 1,000 meters deep with the pressure of the atmosphere.

27.2 Properties of liquids and gases

Pressure comes from collisions between atoms or molecules.
The molecules in fluids (gases and liquids) are not bonded tightly to each other as they are in solids. Molecules move around and collide with each other and with the solid walls of a container.

27.2 Pressure and forces

Pressure creates force on surfaces.
The force is equal to the pressure times the area that contacts the molecules.
Pressure (N/m2) Force (N)

F= PA

Area (m2)

27.2 Calculate pressure

A car tire is at a pressure of 35 psi.
Four tires support a car that weighs 4,000 pounds. Each tire supports 1,000 pounds. How much surface area of the tire is holding up the car?

27.2 Motion of fluids

The study of motion of fluids is called fluid mechanics.
Fluids flow because of differences in pressure.

Moving fluids usually do not have a single speed.

27.2 Properties of liquids and gases

A flow of syrup down a plate shows that friction slows the syrup touching the plate.
The top of the syrup moves fastest because the drag from friction decreases away from the plate surface.

27.2 Properties of liquids and gases

Pressure and energy are related.
Differences in pressure create potential energy in fluids just like differences in height create potential energy from gravity

27.2 Properties of liquids and gases

Pressure does work as fluids expand.
A pressure of one pascal does one joule of work pushing one square meter a distance of one meter.

27.2 Energy in fluids

The potential energy is equal to volume times pressure.
Pressure (N/m2) Potential energy (J)

E= PV

Volume (m3)

27.2 Energy in fluids

The total energy of a small mass of fluid is equal to its potential energy from gravity (height) plus its potential energy from pressure plus its kinetic energy.

27.2 Energy in fluids

The law of conservation of energy is called Bernoullis equation when applied to a fluid.
Bernoullis equation says the three variables of height, pressure, and speed are related by energy conservation.

27.2 Bernoulli's Equation

If one variable increases, at least one of the other two must decrease. If the fluid is not moving (v = 0), then Bernoullis equation gives us the relationship between pressure and depth (negative height).

27.2 Properties of liquids and gases

Streamlines are imaginary lines drawn to show the flow of fluid.
We draw streamlines so that they are always parallel to the direction of flow. Fluid does not flow across streamlines.

27.2 Applying Bernoulli's equation

The wings of airplanes are made in the shape of an airfoil.
Air flowing along the top of the airfoil (B) moves faster than air flowing along the bottom of the airfoil (C).

27.2 Calculating speed of fluids

Water towers create pressure to make water flow.

At what speed will water come out if the water level in the tower is 50 meters higher than the faucet?

27.2 Fluids and friction

Viscosity is caused by forces that act between atoms and molecules in a liquid.
Friction in fluids also depends on the type of flow. Water running from a faucet can be either laminar or turbulent depending on the rate of flow.

27.3 Properties of Gases

Key Question: How much matter is in a gas?

*Students read Section 27.3 AFTER Investigation 27.3

27.3 Properties of Gases

Air is the most important gas to living things on the Earth.

The atmosphere of the Earth is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, argon, and a few trace gases.

27.3 Properties of Gases

An object submerged in gas feels an upward buoyant force. You do not notice buoyant forces from air because the density of ordinary objects is so much greater than the density of air. The density of a gas depends on pressure and temperature.

27.3 Boyle's Law

If the mass and temperature are kept constant, the product of pressure times volume stays the same.
Original pressure (N/m2) Final pressure (N/m2)

P1V1 = P2V2
Original volume (m3) Final volume (m3)

27.3 Calculate using Boyle's law

A bicycle pump creates high pressure by squeezing air into a smaller volume. If air at atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) is compressed from an initial volume of 30 cubic inches to a final volume of three cubic inches, what is the final pressure?

27.3 Charles' Law

If the mass and volume are kept constant, the pressure goes up when the temperature goes up.
Original pressure (N/m2) Final pressure (N/m2)

P1 = P2 T1 T2
Original temperture (k) Final temperature (K)

27.3 Calculate using Charles' law

A can of hair spray has a pressure of 300 psi at room temperature (21C or 294 K).
The can is accidentally moved too close to a fire and its temperature increases to 800C (1,073 K).

What is the final pressure in the can?

27.3 Ideal gas law

The ideal gas law combines the pressure, volume, and temperature relations for a gas into one equation which also includes the mass of the gas.

In physics and engineering, mass (m) is used for the quantity of gas.
In chemistry, the ideal gas law is usually written in terms of the number of moles of gas (n) instead of the mass (m).

27.3 Gas Constants

The gas constants are different because the size and mass of gas molecules are different.

27.3 Ideal gas law

If the mass and temperature are kept constant, the product of pressure times volume stays the same.
Pressure (N/m2) gas constant (J/kgK)

PV=mRT
Volume (m3) Temperature (K)

Mass (kg)

27.3 Calculate using Ideal gas law

Two soda bottles contain the same volume of air at different pressures. Each bottle has a volume of 0.002 m3 (two liters). The temperature is 21C (294 K). One bottle is at a gauge pressure of 500,000 pascals (73 psi). The other bottle is at a gauge pressure of zero. Calculate the mass difference between the two bottles.

Application: The Deep Water Submarine Alvin