Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Multiple Access:
Enable many mobile users to share simultaneously radio spectrum. Provide for the sharing of channel capacity between a number of transmitters at different locations. Aim to share a channel between two or more signals in such way that each signal can be received without interference from another.
Duplexing
In conventional telephone systems, it is possible to talk and listen simultaneously, called duplexing. Duplexing
Allow the possibility of talking and listening simultaneously. Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)
Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user
time seperation
Narrowband systems
large number of narrowband channels usually FDD Narrowband FDMA Narrowband TDMA FDMA/FDD FDMA/TDD TDMA/FDD TDMA/TDD
forward channel
forward channel
forward channel
reverse channel
user 1
user n
forward channel
reverse channel
...
forward channel
reverse channel
Wideband systems
large number of transmitters on one channel TDMA techniques CDMA techniques FDD or TDD multiplexing techniques TDMA/FDD TDMA/TDD CDMA/FDD CDMA/TDD
FDMA
FDMA was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems Separates large band into smaller channels. Each channel has the ability to support user. Guard bands are used to separate channel preventing co-channel interference Narrow bandwidth (30 khz).
Code
User 1
Time
15
Advantages
Simple to implement in terms of hardware. Fairly efficient with a small base population and with constant traffic.
Disadvantages
Network and spectrum planning are intensive and time consuming. Channels are dedicated for a single user, idle channels add spectrum inefficiency.
19
TDMA
Entire bandwidth is available to the user for finite period of time. Users are allotted time slots for a channel allowing sharing of a single channel. Requires time synchronization. Each of the user takes turn in transmitting and receiving data in a round robin fashion.
Code
Time
25
How it works?
User presses Push-to-Talk (PTT) button A control channel registers the radio to the closest base station. The BS assigns an available pair of channels. Unlike FDMA, TDMA system also assigns an available time slot within the channel. Data transmission is not continuous rather sent and received in bursts. The bursts are reassembled and appear like continuous transmission.
29
Advantages Extended battery life and talk time More efficient use of spectrum, compared to FDMA Will accommodate more users in the same spectrum space than an FDMA system Disadvantages Network and spectrum planning are intensive Multipath interference affects call quality Dropped calls are possible when users switch in and out of different cells. Higher costs due to greater equipment sophistication
30
Features of TDMA
a single carrier frequency for several users handoff process much simpler No duplexers is required since users employ different time slots for transmission and reception. FDD : switch instead of duplexer very high transmission rate high synchronization overhead guard slots necessary TDMA can allocate different numbers of time slots per frame to different users, allowing bandwidth be supplied on demand to different users
Frame Structure
One TDMA Frame Preamble Information Message Trail Bits
Slot 1
Slot 2
Slot 3
Slot N
N number of channels m number of TDMA users per radio channel Btot total spectrum allocation Bguard Guard Band Bc channel bandwidth
TDMA/FDD forward link at Btot = 25 MHz radio channels of Bc = 200 kHz if m = 8 speech channels supported, and if no guard band is assumed :
N= 8*25E6 = 1000 simultaneous users 200E3
Efficiency of TDMA
percentage of transmitted data that contain information frame efficiency f usually end user efficiency < f , because of source and channel coding How get f ?
Efficiency of TDMA
bOH = Nr*br + Nt*bp + Nt*bg + Nr*bg
bOH number of overhead bits Nr number of reference bursts per frame br reference bits per reference burst Nt number of traffic bursts per frame bp overhead bits per preamble in each slot bg equivalent bits in each guard time intervall
Efficiency of TDMA
bT = Tf * R bT total number of bits per frame Tf frame duration R channel bit rate
Efficiency of TDMA
f = (1-bOH/bT)*100%
f frame efficiency
bOH number of overhead bits per frame bT total number of bits per frame
CDMA
CDMA is a spread spectrum technique used to increase spectrum efficiency. SS has been used in military applications due to anti-jamming and security.
Code
Time
44
code
forward channel
reverse channel
code
forward channel
reverse channel
Features
Gradual performance degradation. Multipath fading is almost absent, due to RAKE receiver. Channel data rate is very high. Soft handoff Near far problem.
Near-Far Problem
Transmitter 1
Transmitter 2
Receiver 1
Strength of unwanted signal is high due to proximity Strength of wanted signal is low due to remoteness SNR is too low DSSS requires perfect power control
49
Signal Spreading
Transmitter may transmit at the same time, in the same channel. Each signal is modified by spreading it over a large bandwidth.
This spreading occurs by combining the transmitter signal with a spreading sequence.
SS-Multiple-Access
Multiple users are assigned orthogonal codes. They all use same spectrum but different coding. SS and CDMA are tightly coupled.
Processing gain
The ratio of BW of S.S. signal to BW of base band signal. N= Bss/B= Rc/Rb = Tb/T Also called BW expansion ratio.
Types of S.S.
FH/SS
The data signal is shifted over different frequency slots by a PN sequence
Slow FH/SS Fast FH/SS
DS/SS
Signal is directly spread by a PN sequence.
PN code
Freq. Synth.
FHSS
FREQ.
B A N D 1 B A N D 2 B A N D 3
SIGNAL 2 SIGNAL 3
SIGNAL 1
SIGNAL 3
SIGNAL 1
SIGNAL 2
THIS IS FREQ. HOPING CDMA. DURING EACH TIME SLOT A DIFFERENT FREQ. BAND IS ASSIGNED TO EACH SIGNAL. THE FREQ. ALLOTMENT IS DONE BY A PSUEDO RANDOM GENERATOR. EACH USER EMPLOYS A PSUEDONOISE CODE, WHICH IS ORTHOGONAL TO ALL OTHER USERS. THIS CODE HAS PROPERTY THAT
SIGNAL 1
SIGNAL 2
SIGNAL 3
SLOT1
SLOT2
SLOT 3 TIME
DSSS
User data is multiplied with a chip code to spread the signal Then carrier shift is provided. The receiver uses reverse process Typical receiver used are RAKE receiver. Rake receiver compares similarity of one signal with the other.
DSSS Signals
1 0 1 0
10110111000
10110111000
10110111000
10110111000
PN code
FCDMA
Hybrid FDMA/CDMA (FCDMA):
The available wideband spectrum is divided into a number of subspectras with smaller bandwidths. Each of these smaller suchannels becomes a narrowband CDMA system having processing gain lower than the original CDMA system.
DS/FHMA
Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (DS/FHMA)
This technique consists of a direct sequence modulated signal whose center frequency is made to hop periodically in a pseudorandom fashion. Having an advantage in that they avoid the nearfar effect.
Advantages Greatest spectrum efficiency: CDMA improves call quality by filtering out background noise, cross-talk, and interference Simplified frequency planning - all users on a CDMA system use the same radio frequency spectrum. Random Walsh codes enhance user privacy; a spreadspectrum advantage Precise power control increases talk time and battery size for mobile phones Disadvantages Backwards compatibility techniques are costly Currently, base station equipment is expensive Low traffic areas lead to inefficient use of spectrum and equipment resources
66
Disadvantage of SDMA
perfect adaptive antenna system: large antenna needed compromise needed infinitely
SDMA in satellites
INTELSAT IVA SDMA dual-beam receive antenna simultaneously access from two different regions of the earth
Technique
FDMA/FDD
TDMA/FDD
TDMA/FDD
Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) FDMA/TDD US Narrowband Spread Spectrum (IS-95) CDMA/FDD
OFDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. Also called MCM (Multi Carrier Modulation) or Coded OFDM (COFDM). One high bit rate stream is divided between many low data rate stream. Each low data rate stream is carried by a sub-carrier. This reduces ISI and fading effects.
Random Access
Random Access
Collision Period User 4 User 3 User 2 User 1 Time
rescheduled
76
advantages:
simple, no synchronization among users required
disadvantages:
low throughput under heavy load conditions probability of collision increases as number of users increases
Pure-ALOHA
78
Slotted ALOHA
time is divided into equal time slots when a user has a packet to transmit, the packet is buffered and transmitted at the start of the next time slot
BS transmits a beacon signal for timing, all users must synchronize their clocks
advantages:
partial packet collision avoided
Disadvantages
throughput still quite low! there is either no collision or a complete collision
Slotted ALOHA
80
Example
slotted ALOHA in GSM
Two types of channels in GSM:
Traffic channels (TCH): used for transmission of user data based on FDMA/TDMA Signalling channels, used for control and management of a cellular network Random Access Channel (RACH): signalling channel for establishing access to the network (i.e. BS) employs Slotted ALOHA only channel in GSM where contention can occur
81
Reservation ALOHA
Time slots are divided into reservation and transmission slots / periods
during reservation period, stations can reserve future slots in transmission period reservation slot size << transmission slot size collisions occur only in reservation slots
advantages:
disadvantages:
higher throughput under heavy loads max throughput up to 80% of channel capacity
more demanding on users as they have to obtain / keep reservation list up-to-date
R-Aloha is most commonly used in satellite systems satellite collects requests, complies reservation list and finally sends the list back to users
82
R-ALOHA
83
Throughput
Throughput:
The number of packets successfully transmitted through the channel per packet time.
Carrier Sense
In many situations, stations can tell if the channel is in use before trying to use it. If the channel is sensed as busy, no station will attempt to use it until it goes idle. This is the basic idea of the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) protocol.
CSMA Protocols
There are different variations of the CSMA protocols:
1-persistent CSMA Non-persistent CSMA p-persistent CSMA
CSMA/CD Protocol
If two stations transmits simultaneously, they will both detect the collision almost immediately. Rather than finish transmitting their packets, the stations should stop transmitting as soon as the collision is detected. This protocol is called CSMA with collision detection (CSMA/CD).