EXPERIMENTAL STRESS

ANALYSIS

UNIT 1

MEASUREMENTS

Measurement is the estimation of the magnitude of
some attribute of an object, such as its length or weight,
relative to a unit of measurement.
Measurement usually involves using a measuring
instrument, such as a ruler or scale, which is calibrated to
compare the object to some standard, such as a meter or a
kilogram. In science, however, where accurate
measurement is crucial, a measurement is understood to
have three parts: first, the measurement itself, second, the
margin of error, and third, the confidence level -- that is,
the probability that the actual property of the physical
object is within the margin of error.
For example, we might measure the length of an object as
2.34 meters plus or minus 0.01 meter, with a 95% level of
confidence.
Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy and precision can not be
considered independently
A number can be accurate and not precise
A number can be precise and not accurate
The use of the number determines the
relative need for accuracy and precision
ACCURACY
Accuracy can be defined as how close a
number is to what it should be.
Accuracy is determined by comparing a
number to a known or accepted value.
PRECISION
The number of decimal places assigned to
the measured number
It is sometimes defined as reproducibility
Accuracy vs. Precision for
Example 1
Each of these statements is more accurate
and more precise than the one before it.
Statement two is more accurate and more
precise that statement one.
Statement three is more accurate and more
precise than statement two.

Example 2:
How long is a piece of string?
Johnny measures the string at 2.63 cm.
Using the same ruler, Fred measures the
string at 1.98 cm.
Who is most precise?
Who is most accurate?

ACCURACY/PRECISION
You can tell the precision of a number
simply by looking at it. The number of
decimal places gives the precision.
Accuracy on the other hand, depends on
comparing a number to a known value.
Therefore, you cannot simply look at a
number and tell if it is accurate
SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity is the study of how the
variation in the output of a model
(numerical or otherwise) can be
apportioned, qualitatively or quantitatively,
to different sources of variation.
RANGE
Range is used to indicate the difference
between the largest and smallest measured
values or set of data.
UNIT 2


EXTENSOMETERS
INTRODUCTION
Extensometer is a device that is used to
measure small/big changes in the length of an
object. It is useful for stress-strain measurements.
Its name comes from "extension-meter". It was
invented by Dr. Charles Huston who described it
in an article in the Journal of the Franklin Institute
in 1879. Huston later gave the rights to Fairbanks
& Ewing, a major manufacturer of testing
machines and scales
TYPES OF EXTENSOMETERS
Mechanical
Optical
Acoustical
Electrical

MECHANICAL EXTENSOMETER
OPTICAL EXTENSOMETER

Acoustical Extensometer

Electrical Extensometer

Electrical Extensometer
A thin plastic base supports thin ribbons of metal,
joined in a zig-zag to form one long electrically
conductive strip. The entire device is typically 10
mm long, with 16 or more parallel metal bands.
When the plastic is stretched the wires become
longer, and thinner. The electrical resistance
therefore increases.
Unit - III


ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN
GAUGES
Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
Circuits
Electrical Properties of the Resistance Gage
R=L/A
Where L= Length
= Resistively
A= Cross sectional area



Resistance Measuring Circuits
Constant Current Circuit



Ballast Circuit

Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge is the most basic of
a number of useful electrical bridge circuits
that may be used to measure resistance,
capacitance or inductance. It also finds
applications in a number of circuits
designed to indicate resistance changes in
transducers such as resistance thermometers
and moisture gages
Wheatstone Bridge circuit diagram

Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
Considerations
Temperature Effects in the Cage
Fluctuations in ambient and in operating
temperatures produce the most severe effects
generally dealt with in strain measuring circuitry
The problems arise primarily from two
mechanisms:
(1) changes in the gage resistivity with
temperature
(2) temperature induced strain in the gage
element
Temperature Compensation in the
Bridge Circuit
Temperature compensation of the strain gage
alone does not generally eliminate thermal
problems entirely.
Such compensation is rarely exact and the
differences must usually be eliminated by careful
configuration of the Wheatstone Bridge circuit.
The ability to make such compensation is, in
fact, one of the more desirable features of this
circuit
Half Bridge Configuration:
Quarter Bridge Configuration:
Lead wire Temperature/Resistance
Compensation







R
S
= total resistance of lead wires to gage
BRIDGE BALANCING

CALIBRATION
The output from a strain gage bridge is
proportional to changes in resistance of all of the
arms. In most situations, only one or two arms are
active and it is desirable to be able to provide
some means of assurance that the circuit is
working properly.
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is ideally
suited for this purpose because it is relatively easy
to affect a change in resistance in one or more
arms that is proportional to a known physical
parameter.
Calibration Circuits

Unit IV

Photoelasticity
Outline
Theroy of Photoelasticty
Example 1: Stress Opticon
Example 2: GFP 1000
Stress Opticon
Natural
Light
Linear
Polarizer
Circular
Polarizer
( wave-
length)
Sample
Circular
Polarizer
Linear
Polarizer
Analyzer
Observer
Natural Light
Ether Particles Vibration
Light Vector (Amplitude, Direction,
Phase Angle)
Components
Plane Polarizer
Nicols Prism:
Double Refraction
o
e
t t i i
n n u u sin sin =
e o
n n =
Calcium
Canada
Balsam
Polaroid:
Energy Loss: damper
Circular Polarizer
Circular Polarizer
nl
V

t
|
2
=
e o
n n =
Phase Angle:
2
t
| | =
e o
When
2
t
u | | < =
e o
?
If
Another 1/4
Colors
When stressed
nl
V

t
|
2
=
V

Wave Length (different for colors)

If no stress
Different color light has different
phase angle, Rainbow appears.
ReviewStress Opticon
Colors
GFP 1000--Grey field
polariscope
Aluminum
Ring

Wrench
GFP 1000 is a strain measurement system based on photoelasticity
GFP 1000
Theory:
GFP 1000
c
1
c
1
Tension
Compression
Orientation of ellipse measures direction of c
1
Ellipticity measures magnitude
GFP 1000

1
2
3
4
Coating
Unit - V


NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Introduction to Nondestructive
Testing
Outline
Introduction to NDT
Overview of Six Most
Common NDT Methods
Selected Applications
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.
i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.
Definition of NDT
Methods of NDT

Visua
l
What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?
Flaw Detection and Evaluation
Leak Detection
Location Determination
Dimensional Measurements
Structure and Microstructure
Characterization
Estimation of Mechanical and Physical
Properties
Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response
Measurements
Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination

Fluorescent penetrant indication
When are NDE Methods
Used?
To assist in product
development
To screen or sort incoming
materials
To monitor, improve or
control manufacturing
processes
To verify proper processing
such as heat treating
To verify proper assembly
To inspect for in-service
damage
There are NDE application at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a component.
Six Most Common NDT
Methods
Visual
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic
Ultrasonic
Eddy Current
X-ray

Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include
fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous or
tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.
Portable video inspection
unit with zoom allows
inspection of large tanks
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
Visual Inspection
A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics
is applied to the surface of the part and allowed
time to seep into surface breaking defects.
The excess liquid is removed from the surface
of the part.
A developer (powder) is applied to pull the
trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it
on the surface where it can be seen.
Visual inspection is the final step in the
process. The penetrant used is often loaded
with a fluorescent dye and the inspection is
done under UV light to increase test
sensitivity.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Magnetic Particle Inspection
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles
coated with a dye pigment are then applied to the
specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic
flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an
indication directly over the discontinuity. This
indication can be visually detected under proper
lighting conditions.
Magnetic Particle Crack
Indications
Radiography
The radiation used in radiography
testing is a higher energy (shorter
wavelength) version of the
electromagnetic waves that we
see as visible light. The radiation can
come from an X-ray generator or a
radioactive source.
High Electrical Potential
Electrons
- +
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation
Exposure Recording Device
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample
Film Radiography
Top view of developed film
X-ray film
The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.
= more exposure
= less exposure
The film darkness
(density) will vary with
the amount of radiation
reaching the film
through the test object.
Radiographic Images
Conductive
material
Coil
Coil's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents
Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface
cracks but can also be used to make electrical conductivity and
coating thickness measurements. Here a small surface probe is
scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a
material and they are reflected back from surfaces or
flaws.

Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and
inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen
showing the depth of features that reflect sound.
f
plate
crack
0 2 4 6 8 10
initial
pulse
crack
echo
back surface
echo
Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen
Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-
Echo)
Ultrasonic Imaging
Gray scale image produced using
the sound reflected from the front
surface of the coin
Gray scale image produced using the
sound reflected from the back surface
of the coin (inspected from heads side)
High resolution images can be produced by plotting
signal strength or time-of-flight using a computer-
controlled scanning system.
Common Application of NDT
Inspection of Raw Products
Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
In-Services Damage Inspection
Inspection of Raw Products
Forgings,
Castings,
Extrusions,
etc.
Machining
Welding
Grinding
Heat treating
Plating
etc.
Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
Cracking
Corrosion
Erosion/Wea
r
Heat
Damage
etc.
Inspection For
In-Service Damage
Power Plant Inspection
Probe
Signals produced
by various
amounts of
corrosion
thinning.
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current
probes into heat exchanger
tubes to check for corrosion
damage.
Pipe with damage
Wire Rope Inspection
Electromagnetic devices
and visual inspections are
used to find broken wires
and other damage to the
wire rope that is used in
chairlifts, cranes and other
lifting devices.
Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers
use ultrasound to
inspect the walls of
large above ground
tanks for signs of
thinning due to
corrosion.
Cameras on
long
articulating
arms are used
to inspect
underground
storage tanks
for damage.

Aircraft Inspection
Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
NDT is also used to find cracks
and corrosion damage during
operation of the aircraft.
A fatigue crack that started at
the site of a lightning strike is
shown below.
Jet Engine Inspection
Aircraft engines are overhauled
after being in service for a period
of time.
They are completely disassembled,
cleaned, inspected and then
reassembled.
Fluorescent penetrant inspection
is used to check many of the parts
for cracking.
Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went
undetected in an
engine disk was
responsible for
the crash of
United Flight 232.
Crash of United Flight 232
Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release of
a large amount of energy. To
protect against this dangerous
event, the tanks are inspected
using radiography and
ultrasonic testing.
Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to
inspect thousands of miles
of rail to find cracks that
could lead to a derailment.
Bridge Inspection
The US has 578,000
highway bridges.
Corrosion, cracking and
other damage can all
affect a bridges
performance.
The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in
loss of 47 lives.
Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
Some bridges are fitted
with acoustic emission
sensors that listen for
sounds of cracks growing.

NDT is used to inspect pipelines
to prevent leaks that could
damage the environment. Visual
inspection, radiography and
electromagnetic testing are some
of the NDT methods used.
Remote visual inspection using
a robotic crawler.
Radiography of weld joints.
Magnetic flux leakage inspection.
This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as it
is pushed along by whatever is being
transported.
Pipeline Inspection
Special Measurements
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the
privilege of evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage
using NDT techniques. Eddy current methods were
used to measure the electrical conductivity of the
Bell's bronze casing at various points to evaluate its
uniformity.