Basic Electronics

Computer Organization and Architecture
Chapter 18
Release 16/7/2009
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Chapter Objectives
List the Computer Components
List the functions of a Computer

Define Interrupts Explain the I/O function
Explain the Bus structure

Explain the working of memory Explain system designing for performance
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Recall
A flip-flop is digital circuit which is used to store a
single bit of binary data

Different types of flip-flops are Latch or S-R, D flip
flop, T flip-flop, Master-Slave D flip-flop and Edgetriggered D flip-flop

Flips flops are used in memory unit of a computer
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Computer Components - I
A digital computer consists of three different units
I/O unit Memory unit Processor unit
I/O unit comprises of input and output unit Memory unit is used to store programs and data Processor unit comprises of two units Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) and control unit. ALU executes all mathematical operations and Control units coordinate operations of all the functional units.
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Computer Components - II
Computer components follow the Von Neumann
Architecture design. This design is based on three basic concepts. They are:

Data and instructions are stored in a read-write memory The memory contents are located by the addresses without considering that which type of data is contained there Execution is done using sequential method, one instruction to the next
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Computer Function
The basic function of computer is execution of a
program
To execute a program, the processor uses two steps
namely fetch cycle and execution cycle. The basic instruction cycle is shown :
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Question for GD
Time Limit-2mins
What is the basic function for the computer?
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Instruction Fetch and Execute - I

Instruction Fetch and Execute stage contains the
following actions
Processor-memory - This action will transfer the data from memory to processor or processor to memory. Processor-I/O - This action will transfer the data from the processor and I/O module and vice versa.
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Instruction Fetch and Execute - II
Data Processing - This action will perform the arithmetic and logical operations
Control - This action will alert the sequence of instructions execution to set the program counter to the next instruction that is to be fetched.
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Question for GD
stage.
Time Limit-2mins
Explain the function of instruction fetch and execution
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Interrupts - I
Interrupts are used for increasing the processing
efficiency
With the interrupts the processor can be busy
executing the other instructions while the input/output devices are carrying out processing
An interrupt is just a pause of the normal sequence of
program execution
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Interrupts - II
The Instruction cycle with interrupts is shown below
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Question for GD
What are interrupts?
Time Limit-2mins
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I/O function
The data can be directly exchanged with the
processor by the I/O module

The processor can read or write data with memory as
well as with I/O module

The I/O module can control the device that has been
defined by the processor.
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BUS Structures - I
Group of lines that is used to connect all the units via
a path is known as bus

Interconnected functional units can be connected
through a single bus

Single bus cost is low and provides the flexibility for
attaching the peripheral devices

Using multiple buses within a system leads to better
performance but increases the cost

BUS Structures - II
The single bus structure is shown below
Memory and Processor units are operated at greater
speed that makes them the fastest part of the computer.
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Bus Structure III

System bus consists of separate lines which perform
different functions
Separate Lines
Data Lines
Address Lines
Control Lines
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Question for GD
What is the role of a Bus?
Time Limit-2mins
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Data Lines and Address Lines

Data Lines:
Address Lines:
Known as data bus Provides a path for moving data between system modules Consists of 32 to 100 data lines that can be defined as the width of the data bus
Source or destination of the data on the data bus can be designated by their address lines Used to determine the maximum possible capacity of the memory system with the width of address bus
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Control Lines
Use and access of data and address lines are
controlled by control lines

Control lines includes:
Memory write I/O write Transfer ACK Bus request Interrupt request Reset
Memory read I/O read Interrupt ACK Bus grant Clock
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Question for GD
lines?
Time Limit-2mins
What is the function of data, address and control
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Multiple-Bus Hierarchies
Performance will suffers when you connect more
devices within a bus because:
As more devices are attached to the bus, the bus length increases. Subsequently the propagation delay increases respectively. If the aggregate data transfer demand comes near to the capacity of the bus, it may block the bus
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Traditional Bus Architecture

Processor Local Bus Cache
Main Memory
Local I/O Controller
System Bus
Network SCSI
Expansion Bus Interface
Modem
Serial
Expansion Bus
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High Performance Architecture

Main Memory Local Bus Cache/ Bridge
Processor
System Bus
SCSI
Firewire
Graphic
Video
LAN
High Speed Bus
FAX
Expansion Bus Interface
Modem
Serial
Expansion Bus
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Question for GD
high performance architecture?
Time Limit-2mins
What is the difference between Traditional bus and
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Bus Standards
There are various bus standards, they are:

ISA - Industry Standards Architecture PCI - Peripheral Component Interface PCIe - Peripheral Component Interconnect Express PCIx - Peripheral Component Interconnect Extended
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ISA (Industry Standards Architecture)

ISA is used in computers to add expansion cards into
ISA slot
PC/XT bus is an eight-bit ISA that is used by Intel
8086 and Intel 8088 of IBM PC

Embedded control chips and CPU themselves
provides some features like temperature monitoring and voltage reading with the help of buses as ISA services.
Hands on
Identify ISA bus slot on motherboard
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PCI (Peripheral Component Interface)

ISA and EISA buses were used to receive data in
personal computers before the PCI bus structure was announced

PCI specification was designed in June 1992 and
updated in April 1993

Used it for Intel Pentium based system
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Hands on
Identify PCI bus slot on motherboard
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PCI Features

Requires very few chips to be implemented Supports other buses attached to the PCI bus Can function with the 64-bit data bus Supports high bandwidth Supports a variety of microprocessors including both single and multiple processors Can function as a peripheral bus Uses the synchronization timing and centralized arbitration scheme Provides better system performance for the highspeed input/output devices
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Question for GD
Time Limit-2mins
ISA bus width is of _______ bits PCI bus width is of ________ bits
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PCIx
PCIx is a double wide version of PCI It is similar in its electrical implementation and also
uses the same protocol as PCI
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Hands on
Identify PCIx bus slot on motherboard
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PCIe
PCIe is a high-speed peripheral interconnect from
Intel introduced in 2002

PCI Express was designed to match the higher
speeds of today's CPUs

PCI express provides a switched architecture using
serial communication channels.
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Hands on
Identify PCIe bus slot on motherboard
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Question for GD
Time Limit-2mins
What is the difference between PCIx and PCIe
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Working of Memory
Memory can store both program instructions and data In order to run an instruction the process control
circuits should move the word from the memory to the processor Operands and the results of the operation should also be moved between the processor and the memory In order to perform this task two basic operations are used : Load Used for moving a copy of the content from the memory to the processor Store - Move and store the information from the processor to the memory
System Performance
Performance of a computer depends on the
execution speed of the program

Execution speed of a program is affected by the
design of its hardware and its machine language instructions

Cache memory can be installed to improve the
system performance
Performance of the system is also affected by the
speed of the processor, the disk and the printer

Question for GD
Time Limit-2mins
System performance depends on
1. _________
2. _________ 3. _________
4. _________
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Processor Clock
Clock signals defines the times instances for a digital
system When the clock signal moves from 0 to 1, it is known as rising edge If the clock signal moves from 1 to 0, it is known as falling edge Generated by a special-purpose circuit such as clock driver Clock signal controls the processor circuits Clock rate can be defined with the length of the clock cycle R = 1/P
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Pipelining and Superscalar Operation

Multiple instruction pipelines can be implemented in a
processor in order to increase the performance of the system

System uses multiple functional units to execute the
instructions in parallel
It is possible to start executing several instructions in
every clock cycle; this process is also called superscalar execution

Clock Rates
Clock rates affects the performance of the system There are two possibilities to increase the clock rate:
Improve integrated circuit (IC) technology that makes logic circuits faster and reduces the time for completing a basic task Reducing amount of processing in one basic step also reduces the clock period (P)
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Question for GD
What is a Clock Rate?
Time Limit-2mins
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Instruction Set: CISC and RISC

Simple instruction requires a small number of basic steps
whereas the complex instruction requires a large number of steps to be performed.

Reduced Instruction Set Computing supports a limited
number of instructions, whereas Complex Instruction Set Computing supports relatively large number of instructions.
CISC instructions are powerful and are used for
implementing high level language operations

CISC instruction set enables quick and efficient execution
of complex instructions.
Performance Measurement
System Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC)
is an organization that selects and publishes the application programs for different application domains, with the test results for commercially available computers
SPEC rating =
Running time on the reference computer
Running time on the computer under test
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Question for GD
Time Limit-2mins
What is the difference between CISC and RISC?
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Designing for Performance

After every passing year the cost of computer keeps
dropping tremendously and the performance and capacity of these machines keep rising This process has helped in developing applications which are able to perform highly complex application at a very fast rate Examples: Image Processing Speech Recognition Video Conferencing Simulation Modeling
Microprocessor Speed
Speed of the operation was increased by reducing
the distance between processor and memory

Some other techniques to increase processor speed
is given below
Other Techniques
Branch Prediction
Data Flow Analysis
Speculative Execution
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Performance Balance
Due to imbalance in architecture the overall
performance of the system has not improved much Some of the ways in which this problem can be solved are: By using wide data paths, the number of bits fetched from the DRAM could be increased Include cache or buffering technique in the DRAM Introduce a new cache which will lie in between the processor and main memory Use higher speed bus between processor and memory
Improvement in Chip architecture

Some of the techniques used to improve chip
architecture is:
Increase the speed of the processor by reducing the size of logic gates so that more number of them can be included in the chip Size of the cache which lies between the processor and the main memory should be increased Processor architecture should be modified in order to increase the speed of the instruction being executed
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Question for GD
speed 1. _________ 2. _________ 3. _________
Time Limit-2mins
List down the techniques to increase processor
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Summary - I
Basic computer components are CPU ,Main memory,
I/O devices and system interconnection

Basic function of a computer is execution of program To execute a program, processors use two steps
namely instruction fetch cycle and execute cycle

Interrupts are used for increasing processing
efficiency
Summary - II
I/O devices are used to exchange data between the
computer and external device.

Bus Structure is the way to organize the functional
units to form an operational system.

Bus structure has various standards such as ISA,
PCI, PCIx, and PCIe

The performance of a computer depends on the
execution speed of a computer

Mind Map
Draw the mind map to summarize this chapter
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Computer Organization and Architecture

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List the functions of a Computer

Explain the Bus structure

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single bit of binary data

flop, T flip-flop, Master-Slave D flip-flop and Edgetriggered D flip-flop

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I/O unit Memory unit Processor unit

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What is the basic function for the computer?

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Instruction Fetch and Execute - I

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Instruction Fetch and Execute - II

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Explain the function of instruction fetch and execution

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processor by the I/O module

well as with I/O module

defined by the processor.

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a path is known as bus

through a single bus

attaching the peripheral devices

performance but increases the cost

Memory and Processor units are operated at greater

speed that makes them the fastest part of the computer.

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Bus Structure III

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Data Lines and Address Lines

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controlled by control lines

Memory read I/O read Interrupt ACK Bus grant Clock

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What is the function of data, address and control

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devices within a bus because:

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Traditional Bus Architecture

Local I/O Controller

Expansion Bus Interface

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High Performance Architecture

High Speed Bus

Expansion Bus Interface

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What is the difference between Traditional bus and

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ISA (Industry Standards Architecture)

8086 and Intel 8088 of IBM PC

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PCI (Peripheral Component Interface)

personal computers before the PCI bus structure was announced

updated in April 1993

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