Organisational Dynamics

Tejashree Talpade

Organisational Bahaviour

Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about how people, individuals, and groups act in organizations. Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives, organizational objectives, and social objectives. Organizational behavior encompasses a wide range of topics, such as human behavior, change, leadership, teams, etc.

Elements of Organizational Behavior

The organization's base rests on management's philosophy, values, vision and goals. This in turn drives the organizational culture which is composed of the formal organization, informal organization, and the social environment. The culture determines the type of leadership, communication, and group dynamics within the organization. The workers perceive this as the quality of work life which directs their degree of motivation. The final outcome are performance, individual satisfaction, and personal growth and development. All these elements combine to build the model or framework that the organization operates from.

Models of Organizational Behavior

There are four major models or frameworks that organizations operate out of: Autocratic - The basis of this model is power with a managerial orientation of authority. The employees in turn are oriented towards obedience and dependence on the boss. The employee need that is met is subsistence. The performance result is minimal. Custodial - The basis of this model is economic resources with a managerial orientation of money. The employees in turn are oriented towards security and benefits and dependence on the organization. The employee need that is met is security. The performance result is passive cooperation.

Supportive - The basis of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation of support. The employees in turn are oriented towards job performance and participation. The employee need that is met is status and recognition. The performance result is awakened drives. Collegial - The basis of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of teamwork. The employees in turn are oriented towards responsible behavior and selfdiscipline. The employee need that is met is selfactualization. The performance result is moderate enthusiasm.

Although there are four separate models, almost no organization operates exclusively in one. There will usually be a predominate one, with one or more areas over-lapping in the other models.

How individualization affects different organizations

High Conformity Socialization

Creative Individualism

Isolation

Rebellion

Low
Low Individualization High

The chart above (Schein, 1968) shows how individualization affects different organizations:

Too little socialization and too little individualization creates isolation. Too high socialization and too little individualization creates conformity. Too little socialization and too high individualization creates rebellion. While the match that organizations want to create is high socialization and high individualization for a creative environment. This is what it takes to survive in a very competitive environment...having people grow with the organization, but doing the right thing when others want to follow the easy path.

Organization Development

Organization Development (OD) is the systematic application of behavioral science knowledge at various levels, such as group, inter-group, organization, etc., to bring about planned change. Its objectives is a higher quality of work-life, productivity, adaptability, and effectiveness. It accomplishes this by changing attitudes, behaviors, values, strategies, procedures, and structures so that the organization can adapt to competitive actions, technological advances, and the fast pace of change within the environment.

There are seven characteristics of OD:

Humanistic Values: Positive beliefs about the potential of employees (McGregor's Theory Y). Systems Orientation: All parts of the organization, to include structure, technology, and people, must work together. Experiential Learning: The learners' experiences in the training environment should be the kind of human problems they encounter at work. The training should NOT be all theory and lecture.

There are seven characteristics of OD:

Problem Solving: Problems are identified, data is gathered, corrective action is taken, progress is assessed, and adjustments in the problem solving process are made as needed. This process is known as Action Research. Contingency Orientation: Actions are selected and adapted to fit the need. Change Agent: Stimulate, facilitate, and coordinate change.

Levels of Interventions: Problems can occur at one or more level in the organization so the strategy will require one or more interventions.

Quality of Work Life

Quality of Work Life (QWL) is the favorableness or unfavorableness of the job environment. Its purpose is to develop jobs and working conditions that are excellent for both the employees and the organization. One of the ways of accomplishing QWL is through job design. Some of the options available for improving job design are: Leave the job as is but employ only people who like the rigid environment or routine work. Some people do enjoy the security and task support of these kinds of jobs. Leave the job as is, but pay the employees more. Mechanize and automate the routine jobs. And the area that OD loves - redesign the job.

Redesigning jobs

When redesigning jobs there are two spectrums to follow job enlargement and job enrichment. Job enlargement adds a more variety of tasks and duties to the job so that it is not as monotonous. This takes in the breadth of the job. That is, the number of different tasks that an employee performs. This can also be accomplished by job rotation. Job enrichment, on the other hand, adds additional motivators. It adds depth to the job - more control, responsibility, and discretion to how the job is performed. This gives higher order needs to the employee, as opposed to job enlargement which simply gives more variety. The chart below (Cunningham & Eberle, 1990) illustrates the differences:

Redesigning jobs
Higher order Job Enrichment Accent on needs Job enrichment & enlargement

Routine Job

Job Enlargement

Lower order Few Variety of Tasks Many

The benefits of enriching jobs include: Growth of the individual Individuals have better job satisfaction Self-actualization of the individual Better employee performance for the organization Organization gets intrinsically motivated employees Less absenteeism, turnover, and grievances for the organization Full use of human resources for society Society gains more effective organizations

There are a variety of methods for improving job enrichment:

Skill Variety: Perform different tasks that require different skill. This differs from job enlargement which might require the employee to perform more tasks, but require the same set of skills. Task Identity: Create or perform a complete piece of work. This gives a sense of completion and responsibility for the product. Task Significant: This is the amount of impact that the work has on other people as the employee perceives. Autonomy: This gives employees discretion and control over job related decisions. Feedback: Information that tells workers how well they are performing. It can come directly from the job (task feedback) or verbally form someone else.

Organisational Culture

Organisational culture is the personality of the organisation

Culture is comprised of : The shared philosophies, ideologies, values, assumptions, beliefs, expectations, attitudes and norms that knit a community together.

Culture

Basically, organizational culture is the personality of the organization. Culture is comprised of the assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs (artifacts) of organization members and their behaviors. Members of an organization soon come to sense the particular culture of an organization. Culture is one of those terms that's difficult to express distinctly, but everyone knows it when they sense it. For example, the culture of a large, for-profit corporation is quite different than that of a hospital which is quite different that that of a university.

Define Culture

Paradigm: What the organization is about; what it does; its mission; its values. Rituals and Routines: Management meetings, board reports become more habitual than necessary. Organizational Structures: Reporting lines, hierarchies, and the way that work flows thru the business. Control Systems: The processes in place to monitor what is going on.. Equations of Power: Who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, & what is power base? Symbols: Logos and designs, may extend to symbols of power, ie car parking spaces & executive washrooms! Stories and Myths: build up about people & events, and convey a message on what is valued in Org

Levels of Culture
Usual visible behavior patterns, styles of functioning, norms, rituals and ceremonies Hidden assumptions, values, fundamental beliefs behind decisions and actions

OVERT / SURFACE

HIDDEN/ UNKNOWN

Unconscious human nature, collective behaviors, instincts, motives and desires

Dimensions of Culture
Achievement

Concern for performance and goal accomplishment Desire to set or maintain high standards / excellence

Drive to attain unique accomplishments

Power

Concern for maintaining control Desire for status and position for their own sake Emphasis on authority, hierarchy and privileges : Desire to maintain positive emotional relationship Concern for social contact and interaction Emphasis on harmony and friendly relationship

Affiliation

Types of Organisational Culture

Achievement
1 2 3 4 5 6

Affiliation

Power

Low
Low Low High High High

Low
Low High Low High High

Low
High Low Low Low High

Types of Organisational Culture

Achievement
1 2 3 4 5 6

Affiliation Low Low High Low High High

Power Low High Low Low Low High

Type
Bureaucratic Autocratic Affiliative Professional/ Contract Team PaternalisticAutocratic

Low Low Low High High High

Levels of Cultural Maturity

Lower Level

Higher Level

Control by fear Reactive, short-term perspective Narrow, stereotyped range of responses Trial and error learning Parts are fragmented Untrusting and exploitative Personalized conflict

Control by commitment Reflective, long term perspective Wide range and variety of responses Designed learning Parts are integrated Trust, integrity and right action Conflict over issues, resolved by reason

Models for evaluating Culture

Influences on organizational culture

National culture

Nation specific influences Departments Importable (.crats) Senior Management

Work-groups

Task

Corporate Culture

Values
Commitment Sharing

National culture is an important influence in culture. Geert Hofstede demonstrated that there are regional differences The members of the organization bring their own individual experiences, beliefs and values.

Work-groups within the organization have their own behavioral quirks and interactions which, to an extent, affects the whole system. Task culture can be imported. That is to say, computer technicians will have expertise, language and behaviors gained independently of the organization that set them apart from their colleagues, but their mere presence can influence the culture of the organization. Senior management may determine a Corporate Culture. They may wish to impose corporate values and standards of behavior that specifically reflect the objectives of the organization.

Hofstede Model

Power distance Uncertainty avoidance individualism vs. collectivism Masculinity vs. femininity Long vs. short term orientation

Power distance - The degree to which a society expects there to be differences in the levels of power. A high score suggests that there is an expectation that some individuals wield larger amounts of power than others. A low score reflects the view that all people should have equal rights. Uncertainty avoidance reflects the extent to which a society accepts uncertainty and risk. individualism vs. collectivism - individualism is contrasted with collectivism, and refers to the extent to which people are expected to stand up for themselves, or alternatively act predominantly as a member of the group or organization. Masculinity vs. femininity - refers to the value placed on traditionally male or female values. Male values for example include competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition, and the accumulation of wealth and material possessions. Long vs. short term orientation

Deal and Kennedy

The Tough-Guy Macho Culture

Rapid feedback, High Risk, Athletes

Rapid feedback, Low risk .Service industry

The Work Hard/Play Hard Culture

The Bet your Company Culture

Low Feedback, High Risk Research

Low feedback , Low Risk.Beauraucracy

The Process Culture

Feedback & Risk

Deal and Kennedy defined organizational culture as the way things get done around here. They measured organizations in respect of: Feedback - quick feedback means an instant response. This could be in monetary terms, but could also be seen in other ways, such as the impact of a great save in a soccer match. Risk - represents the degree of uncertainty in the organizations activities. Using these parameters, they were able to suggest four classifications of organizational culture: The Tough-Guy Macho Culture. Feedback is quick and the rewards are high. This often applies to fast moving financial activities such as brokerage, but could also apply to policemen or women, or athletes competing in team sports. This can be a very stressful culture in which to operate.

The Work Hard/Play Hard Culture is characterized by few risks being taken, all with rapid feedback. This is typical in large organizations, which strive for high quality customer service. It is often characterized by team meetings, jargon and buzzwords. The Bet your Company Culture, where big stakes decisions are taken, but it may be years before the results are known. Typically, these might involve development or exploration projects, which take years to come to fruition, such as oil prospecting or military aviation. The Process Culture occurs in organizations where there is little or no feedback. People become bogged down with how things are done not with what is to be achieved. This is often associated with bureaucracies. Whilst it is easy to criticize these cultures for being over cautious or bogged down in red tape, they do produce consistent results, which is ideal in, for example, public services.

Charles Handy

Power Culture (Club)

Few rules, little bureaucracy, quick decision delegated authorities within a highly defined structure Teams are formed to solve particular problems where all individuals believe themselves superior to the organization

Role Culture (Apollo)

Task Culture (Athena)

Person Culture (Dionysus)

a Power Culture which concentrates power in a few pairs of hands. Control radiates from the center like a web. Power Cultures have few rules and little bureaucracy; swift decisions can ensue. In a Role Culture, people have clearly delegated authorities within a highly defined structure. Typically, these organizations form hierarchical bureaucracies. Power derives from a person's position and little scope exists for expert power. By contrast, in a Task Culture, teams are formed to solve particular problems. Power derives from expertise so long as a team requires expertise. These cultures often feature the multiple reporting lines of a matrix structure. A Person Culture exists where all individuals believe themselves superior to the organization. Survival can become difficult for such organizations, since the concept of an organization suggests that a group of like-minded individuals pursue the organizational goals. Some professional partnerships can operate as person cultures, because each partner brings a peculiar expertise and clientele to the firm.

Individual cum Group Exercise

Define Culture of an Organization

Group Dynamics

What is A Group ?
A comprehensive definition would say that is a group exists in an organization, its members:

Are motivated to join Perceive the group as unified unit of interacting people Contribute in various amounts to the group processes Reach agreements and have differences in various forms of interactions

What is a Group? A group is: two or more people who share a common definition and evaluation of themselves and behave in accordance with such a definition (Vaughan & Hogg, 2002, p. 200) a collection of people who interact with one another, accept rights and obligations as members and who share a common identity. Criteria for a group include: formal social structure face-to-face interaction 2 or more persons common fate common goals interdependence self-definition as group members recognition by others

What is Group Dynamics?

Kurt Lewin popularized it in 1930s How groups should be organized and conducted. Democratic leadership, member participation and over all cooperation is stressed. Another view was that it is a set of technique used. e.g. team building, brainstorming etc. It was viewed from the internal perspective of the group, as to how they are formed, their structure and processes, their functioning, the interaction within the group etc.

Why do individual form groups?

Why do individuals form groups?

Propinquity It simply means that people affiliate with each other because of geographic proximity. e.g. The students sitting besides each other are more likely to form a group than those sitting on opposite corners of the class The other theories are based on commonality of activity, interactions and sentiments. One of the major element is INTERACTION

Why do individual form groups?

EXCHANGE THEORY This is based on the reward - cost outcomes of interactions. The minimum acceptable would be that the rewards are at a minimum positive level than costs.

Stages of Group Development

Stages of group development Bruce Tuckman (1965) developed a 4-stage model of group development. He labelled the stages, Dr Suess-style: 1. Forming: The group comes together and gets to initially know one other and form as a group. 2. Storming: A chaotic vying for leadership and trialling of group processes 3. Norming: Eventually agreement is reached on how the group operates (norming) 4. Performing: The group practices its craft and becomes effective in meeting its objectives. Tuckman added a 5th stage 10 years later: 5. Adjourning: The process of "unforming" the group, that is, letting go of the group structure and moving on.

Types of Group
There are different types of groups. Each group has a different bearing on its members. Primary Groups A primary group is smaller in size (generally no number is assigned to define small size, but it should be small enough to facilitate one -to -one interaction & face - to - face interaction). In addition it has a higher degree of comradeship, loyalty and a common sense of values amongst its members. E.g. Family & Peer group.

Types of Group

Coalition

Interacting group of individuals

Deliberately constructed by the members for a specific purpose.

Independent of the formal organization structure

lacks a formal internal structure Mutual perception of membership Issue-oriented to advance purpose of members

Types of Group

Formal Groups They are constituted with a specific purpose. Members of this group are normally not by choice

Number of members are normally restricted.

Members are not homogeneous in nature Vide variety of skill sets.

Informal Group They are not constituted. Voluntary membership Number of members are not normally restricted. Members are generally homogeneous in nature Vide variety of skill sets. E.g. interest group, friendship group, membership group, etc.

Sources of Group Effectiveness

Organizational context

Group structure

Goals Resources Knowledge Motivation Leadership

Formal structure Group roles Extent of interdependence Complexity

Group resources

The task

What is Cohesion?

The cement binding together group members and maintaining their relationships to one another The resultant of all the forces acting on the members to remain in the group

The attraction of individuals to the team or group itself, where the individual defines herself as a member of a group, rather than as an individual

Types of Cohesion
Interpersonal or social

The attraction between and among group members Liking, friendship

Task

The ability of the group to facilitate individuals goals Not necessary for group members to like one another

Cohesion: Antecedents and Consequences

Where does it come from?

Propinquity and interaction Perceived similarities in personality, status, attitudes, demographics, etc. External frustration or threat Shared success or failure

What are the results?

Higher perceptions of similarity Uniformity of thought / behavior Performance Better communications

Factors that increase or decrease group cohesiveness

Increase Agreement on group goals frequency of interaction personal attractiveness inter group competition favorable evaluation

Decreases Disagreement on goals Large group size Unpleasant experiences Intra-group competition dominance by one or more members

Group Roles: Group-Oriented Behavior

Encouraging Expressing Group Feelings Harmonizing Gate-Keeping Setting Standards

Anti-Group Behavior

The Blocker The Recognition-Seeker The Dominator The Avoider

Conflict in Groups

Different goals Lack of role clarity Dysfunctional group behaviors

Anti-group behaviors Groupthink

Group Norms
Norms are strongly enforced if ... They aid in survival and provision of the benefit Simplify or make predictable the behavior expected of group members. Help the group in avoiding embarrassment / interpersonal conflicts Expresses the central values or goals of the group and clarify what is distinctive about the group.

Group Norms
What causes compliance to norms Group Pressure Group Review & Reinforcement Personal Values and Norms

Role and Role Playing

What is Role? Role consists of pattern of norms. It is a position that can be acted out by an individual. The content of the given role is prescribed by the prevailing norm.

Types of Role
Task- Oriented Employee Technique Oriented Employee Nay Sayers Yes Sayers Rule enforcers New Comers

Old timer
Climbers Cosmopolitans

Rule evaders
Rule blinkers Involved employee

Locals

Detached employee
Mavericks values.) (Depart from group

Types of Role

Contributor: Task Oriented member. He is seen as very dependent. He enjoys providing support to the group activities. Communicator Positive, people oriented & effective listener. He plays the role of a facilitator of involvement, problem solving, resolving conflicts.

Types of Role
Collaborator Focuses on the big picture. Reminds others of the larger goals. Flexible in approach.

Challenger Known for candor and openness questions teams goals, methods etc. Willing to disagree with any one if he feel so.

Group Think
Deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgements that result from group pressures It results from the pressures from individual members to conform and reach consensus.

Group Think
Symptoms

There is an illusion of invulnerability. There is excessiveness of optimism and risk taking There are rationalization by members to discount warnings / threats The group ignores questionable ethical or moral issues

Group Think
Symptoms

Those who oppose are stereotyped as evil or bad or weak. Loyal members do not question the direction in which the group is heading. Self censorship on any type of deviation from group consensus. There is an illusion of unanimity. Silence is taken as conformance. Self appointed Mind-guard, who protect the group from adverse information.

Strategies for Managing Conflict

Fox You bend I bend Win -Win Teddy Bear I lose you win Lose - Win Shark I win you lose Win - Lose Turtle No winners no losers Lose - Lose

Compromising You bend, I bend Symbol: Fox Fundamental premise: Winning something while losing a little is OK Strategic philosophy: Both ends are placed against the middle in an attempt to serve the "common good" while ensuring each person can maintain something of their original position When to use: * When people of equal status are equally committed to goals * When time can be saved by reaching intermediate settlements on individual parts of complex issues * When goals are moderately important Drawbacks: * Important values and long-term objectives can be derailed in the process * May not work if initial demands are too great * Can spawn cynicism, especially if there's no commitment to honor the compromise solutions .

Accommodating I lose, you win Symbol: Teddy Bear

Fundamental premise: Working toward a common purpose is more important than any of the peripheral concerns; the trauma of confronting differences may damage fragile relationships

Strategic philosophy: Appease others by downplaying conflict, thus protecting the relationship
When to use: *When an issue is not as important to you as it is to the other person

*When you know you can't win

*When it's not the right time *When harmony is extremely important *When what the parties have in common is a good deal more important than their differences Drawbacks: *One's own ideas don't get attention *Credibility and influence can be lost

Competing I win, you lose Symbol: Shark Fundamental premise: Associates "winning" a conflict with competition Strategic philosophy: When goals are extremely important, one must sometimes use power to win When to use: When you know you are right When quick decision is needed When a strong personality is trying to steamroller you When you need to stand up for your rights Drawbacks: Can escalate conflict Losers may retaliate

Avoiding No winners, no losers

Symbol: Turtle Fundamental premise: This isn't the right time or place to address this issue Strategic philosophy: Avoids conflict by withdrawing, sidestepping, or postponing When to use: When the conflict is small and relationships are at stake When more important issues are pressing and you feel you don't have time to deal with this particular one When you see no chance of getting your concerns met When you are too emotionally involved and others around you can solve the conflict more successfully When more information is needed Drawbacks: Important decisions may be made by default Postponing may make matters worse

Diversity @ workplace

What is Diversity?

In simple terms, diversity is "otherness," or those human qualities that are different from our own and outside the groups in which we belong. There are various qualities that differentiate one individual from the next.

Elements of Diversity

Age Gender

Income Education Marital Status Religious Beliefs Geographic Location Parental Status Personality Type

Ethnicity
Race Physical Ability Sexual Orientation Physical Characteristics

Diversity:
The uniqueness of all individuals; includes everyone.

Principles of Diversity Management

Establish a business strategy for effectively managing a diverse workforce

Create a positive work environment

Promote personal and professional development Empower all people to reach their full potential Remove barriers that hinder progress Ensure equal opportunities and prevent discrimination

Creating an Organization That Can Manage Diversity

Organizational vision Top management commitment Auditing and assessment of needs Clarity of objectives Clear accountability Effective communication Coordination of activity Evaluation

Techniques for Managing Diversity

Managing diversity training programs Core groups to manage diversity Multicultural teams Senior managers of diversity Targeted recruitment and selection programs

Techniques for Managing Diversity

Compensation and reward programs tied to achieving diversity goals Language training Mentoring programs Cultural advisory groups Corporate social activities that celebrate diversity

Managing diversity effectively

Leads to: Greater range of perspectives, ideas, and creativity. Better problem definition, generation of alternatives, and decisions. Greater potential of developing a high performance team. Greater resilience in dealing with escalating demands.

Mismanaging diversity
Leads to: Disrupts development of trust, constructive working relationships, arriving at consensus & agreement. Stereotyping of other members and sub grouping along cultural lines. Misunderstanding and disruptive communication. Low levels of efficiency, effectiveness & productivity

Unintended Results of Managing Diversity

Programs that focus on encouraging certain groups may create feelings of unfairness or exclusion in others Giving preferential treatment to certain groups may stigmatize their members Increasing diversity without recognition and rewards for the new members can create organizational tension

Implications for Managers

Managing a diverse workforce is an important part of an international managers job Must understand the impact of diversity and know how to utilize Realize different cultures view diversity differently and consider impact on manager

Potential Benefits of an Effective Diversity Management Program

Improve organizational performance

Help prevent unlawful discrimination or harassment incidents Improve workplace relations Build more effective work teams Improve organizational problem solving

Improve customer service

Enhanced recruitment efforts

Making heads count is more important than counting heads

Possible barriers in the organization that prevent a more balanced workforce?

Limiting area of consideration Lack of diversity at the senior ranks Categorizing people into certain positions Always recruiting from same source Grooming/developing only one person

Strategies for Inclusion

The Value of Mentoring

Without regard to race, gender, religion, national origin . Inconvenience yourself to show someone else the way Unleash someone elses potential

Professional Development

Identify training and development needs for all employees Utilize Individual Development Plans Rotational & Developmental Assignments Rotate acting supervisor

Diversity management is about full utilization of people with different backgrounds and experiences. Effective diversity management strategy has a positive effect on cost reduction, creativity, problem solving, and organizational flexibility

3 Stage Model of Organisational Development in dealing with diversity

Monolithic & Homogeneous Org

Pluralistic & Heterogeneous Org

Learns

Multi-Cultural Organisations
Truly

Discrimination Prejudice

Occupational Segregation Majority influences minority

to manage diversity Has more heterogeneous membership Focus on equal employment opportunities Emphasis on equity in employment & pay High degree of inter-group conflict between minority & majority

values diversity Extensive awareness training & skill bldg. Reciprocal learning & influence of minority & majority Open minded, flexible, open to others perspective Recognize, Appreciate and work effectively with diversity

Power

Power is the potential ability to influence behaviour, to change the course of events, to overcome resistance, and to get the people to do the things they would not otherwise do Distinction between Power and Leadership Bases of power

Legitimate Power Coercive Power Reward Power Information Power Referent Power Expert Power Charismatic Power

Coercive Power

Power drawn from organizational position legitimate power or power to allocate resources coerces people to accept influences. Punishment Charismatic Power charismatic leader does not treat his people as mature people with competence to make their own decisions. Emotional power- when influence is accepted because of emotional bond rather a conscious choice Reflected Power- derived from larger power base e.g. CEOs private secretary Manipulated power by withholding information, delaying action, depriving a person from information

Coercive Power
Base Organizational Position Closeness to power source Charisma Ability to punish Personal Relationship Ability to withhold/ deprive information Type Status Reflected Charismatic Coercive Emotional Manipulative

Persuasive Power

Personal Power

Expertise special knowledge Competence general effectiveness to product results Referent Power (Modeling) Example set by Behaviour

Reward power encourages people to experiment reinforcing Extension power - Helping / caring Logical Power - Information

Persuasive Power
Base Expertise Competence Role Modeling Ability to reward Helping / caring Type Expert Competence Referent Reinforcing Extension

Information

Logical

What Creates Power

The greater As dependency on B, the greater Bs power over A. Dependency arises out of control on resources which are

Important Scarce Non-substitutable

Power Tactics

Ways in which Individual translates power bases into specific actions

Seven tactical dimensions or strategies Reason Assertiveness Friendliness Coalition Bargaining Higher authority Sanctions

Organizational Politics

Activities that are not required as part of ones formal role in the Organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. Is it possible for the Organizations to be politics free?

Politics in Organizations

Use of Power to affect decision making in the organization, especially those concerned with distribution of advantages or disadvantages within the Organization. Legitimate Political Behaviours Illegitimate Political behaviours

Good power and politics

Processes Empowerment, open conflict, positive-sum games, creative turbulence, acceptance of rules of the game, consensus on core values, shifting coalitions and interests Outcomes Flexibility, adaptiveness, overcome dependency and inertia, root out entrenched interests, abolish unproductive routines, increased efficacy, efficiency

Bad power and politics

From the organizations perspective

Processes

Back-stabbing, rumor-mongoring, vengeance-seeking, sabotage, corruption, secrecy, hoarding, zero-sum games Goal subversion/sub-optimization; factionalism; stalemate & inertia, high cost in time & resources, loss of transparency and accountability

Outcomes

From the participants perspective

Uncertainty, anxiety, frustration, stress, isolation, inability to focus on tasks, failure

Employee Response to Bad Politics

Decreased Job Satisfaction Increased Anxiety Increased Turnover Reduced Performance

Defensive Behaviour

Avoiding Action

Avoiding Change
Prevention Self-protection

Over conforming Buck Passing Playing Dumb Stretching Stalling

Avoiding Blame

Buffing Playing Safe Justifying Scapegoating Misrepresenting

Strategies for Attaining Power

Maintaining alliance with powerful people

Embrace or Demolish
Divide and Rule Manipulate Information Create good impressions Collect and use IOUs Go slow and easy Wait for crises Reservations against participation

Impression Management

Conformity : Agreeing to gain approval Excuses : To minimize severity Apologies: Admitting responsibility and attempt to gain pardon Self-Promotion: Highlighting ones achievements and positives Flattery: Complimenting others Favours: Doing something nice to gain approval Association: Reflected glory

Power Sharing

Decentralization of power- shared decision making. De-concentration handing over some admin authority to lower levels Delegation- Transferring responsibility for specifically defined functions Devolution - creating and strengthening sub-units Privatization passing responsibility to private orgs.

Delegation

The process of delegation: Jointly define role boundaries Provide needed competencies Provide needed resources Monitor but do not closely supervise Reward discretion and initiative Respect role boundaries Jointly analyse mistakes to plan for future Review delegation down the line

Stress & Burnout

Stress at Workplace

Job stress is a chronic disease caused by conditions in the workplace that negatively affect an individual's performance and/or overall well-being of his body and mind. One or more of a host of physical and mental illnesses manifests job stress. In some cases, job stress can be disabling. In chronic cases a psychiatric consultation is usually required to validate the reason and degree of work related stress.

Symptoms

The signs of job stress vary from person to person, depending on the particular situation, how long the individual has been subjected to the stressors, and the intensity of the stress itself. Typical symptoms of job stress can be: Insomnia Loss of mental concentration, Anxiety, stress Absenteeism Depression, Substance abuse, Extreme anger and frustration, Family conflict Physical illnesses such as heart disease, migraine, headaches, stomach problems, and back problems.

Causes of Workplace Stress

Job Insecurity High Demand for Performance Technology Workplace Culture Personal or Family Problems Job Stress and Women

How to deal with Stress

Set realistic goals for yourself: Reduce the number of events going on in your life and you may reduce the circuit overload Remove yourself from the stressful situation: Give yourself a break if only for a few moments daily Don't overwhelm yourself: by fretting about your entire workload. Handle each task as it comes, or selectively deal with matters in some priority

How to deal with Stress

Don't sweat the small stuff: Try to prioritize a few truly important things and let the rest slide Selectively change the way you react: but not too much at one time. Focus on one troublesome thing and manage your reactions to it/him/her Avoid extreme reactions: Why hate when a little dislike will do? Why generate anxiety when you can be nervous? Why rage when anger will do the job? Why be depressed when you can just be sad?

How to deal with Stress

Get enough sleep: Lack of rest just aggravates stress Avoid self-medication or escape: Alcohol and drugs can mask stress. They don't help deal with the problems

Learn how to best relax yourself: Meditation and breathing exercises have been proven to be very effective in controlling stress. Practice clearing your mind of disturbing thoughts.

How to deal with Stress

Change the way you see things: Learn to recognize stress for what it is. Increase your body's feedback and make stress self-regulating Do something for others: to help get your mind off your self Work off stress: with physical activity, whether it's jogging, tennis, gardening Try to "use" stress: If you can't fight what's bothering you and you can't flee from it, flow with it and try to use it in a productive way Try to be positive: Give yourself messages as to how well you can cope rather than how horrible everything is going to be. "Stress can actually help memory, provided it is short-term and not too severe

Burnout

Burnout is a psychological term for the experience of longterm exhaustion and diminished interest (depersonalization or cynicism), usually in the work context. It is also used as an English slang term to mean exhaustion. Burnout is often construed as the result of a period of expending too much effort at work while having too little recovery. Sometimes argued that workers with particular personality traits (especially neuroticism) are more prone to experiencing burnout. Burnout proceeds by stages that blend and merge into one another so smoothly and imperceptibly that the victim seldom realizes what happened even after it's over.

The stages include

1. The Honeymoon During the honeymoon phase, your job is wonderful. You have boundless energy and enthusiasm and all things seem possible. You love the job and the job loves you. You believe it will satisfy all your needs and desires and solve all your problems. You're delighted with your job, your coworkers and the organization.

2. The Awakening

The honeymoon wanes and the awakening stage starts with the realization that your initial expectations were unrealistic. The job isn't working out the way you thought it would. It doesn't satisfy all your needs; your co-workers and the organization are less than perfect; and rewards and recognition are scarce.
As disillusionment and disappointment grow, you become confused. Something is wrong, but you can't quite put your finger on it. Typically, you work even harder to make your dreams come true. But working harder doesn't change anything and you become increasingly tired, bored, and frustrated. You question your competence and ability and start losing your self-confidence

3. Brownout

As brownout begins, your early enthusiasm and energy give way to chronic fatigue and irritability. Your eating and sleeping patterns change and you indulge in escapist behaviors such as sex, drinking, drugs, partying, or shopping binges. You become indecisive, and your productivity drops. Your work deteriorates. Co-workers and superiors may comment on it. Unless interrupted, brownout slides into its later stages. You become increasingly frustrated and angry and project the blame for your difficulties onto others. You are cynical, detached, and openly critical of the organization, superiors, and co-workers. You are beset with depression, anxiety, and physical illness. Drugs or alcohol are often a problem.

4. Full Scale Burnout

Unless you wake up and interrupt the process or someone intervenes, brownout drifts remorselessly into full-scale burnout. Despair is the dominant feature of this final stage. This may take several months, but in most cases it involves three to four years. You experience an overwhelming sense of failure and a devastating loss of self-esteem and selfconfidence. You become depressed and feel lonely and empty. Life seems pointless and there is a paralyzing, "what's the use" pessimism about the future. You talk about, "just quitting and getting away." Your are exhausted physically and mentally. Physical and mental breakdowns are likely. Suicide, stroke, or heart attack are not unusual as you complete the final stage of what all started with such high hopes, energy, optimism, and enthusiasm.

5. The Phoenix Phenomenon

You can arise Phoenix-like from the ashes of burnout, but it takes time. First of all, you need to rest and relax. Don't take work home. If you're like most, the work won't get done and you'll only feel guilty for being "lazy. In coming back from burnout, be realistic in your job expectations, aspirations, and goals. Whomever you're talking to about your feelings can help you, but be careful. Your readjusted aspirations and goals must be yours and not somebody else's. Trying to be and do what someone else wants you to be or do is a surefire recipe for continued frustration and burnout.

Burnout

The Four Attitudinal Stages of Burnout

1. Physical, Mental and Emotional Exhaustion. 2. Shame and Doubt. 3. Cynicism and Callousness. 4. Failure, Helplessness and Crisis.

Change Management

Managing Change

Why organisations need to change

Many things cause organisational change. These include:

challenges of growth, especially global markets changes in strategy technological changes competitive pressures customer pressure, particularly shifting markets to learn new organisation behaviour and skills government legislation/initiatives.

The Kurt Lewin model of change

This model considers that change involves a move from one static state via a state of activity to another static status quo. Lewin specifically considers a three-stage process of managing change:

Unfreezing, Changing and Re-freezing.

The first stage involves creating a level of dissatisfaction with the status quo, which creates conditions for change to be implemented. The second stage requires organising and mobilising the resources required to bring about the change.
The third stage involves embedding the new ways of working into the organisation.

Process of Organisational change

Unfreezing :

Identifying the need for change Increasing the driving forces of change Express the need for change Communicate the potential benefit Protect the interest of concerned people Get people involved in the process Communicate the progress of change Use a respected change agent Reinforce earlier change Reducing the resisting forces of change

Moving / Changing:

Individual components Group components Task components Structural components Technology components

Refreezing :

Reinforcing the newly learned behavior Finding fits between organizational components Maintaining fits between organizational components

Issues in the change management process?

Organisational issues:

Individual change initiatives are not always undertaken as part of a wider coherent change plan, for example a change that considers a new structure but fails to establish the need to introduce new systems to support such a structure is less likely to succeed. Poor communication has been linked to issues surrounding the effectiveness of in achieving effective change in various ways. For example, imposed change can lead to greater employee resistance Finally, lack of effective leadership has been identified as an inhibitor of effective change.

Individual/group resistance to change

Resistance to change can be defined as an individual or group engaging in acts to block or disrupt an attempt to introduce change. Resistance itself can take many different forms from subtle undermining of change initiatives, withholding of information to active resistance eg via strikes.

Individual/group resistance to change

Resistance to change can be considered along various dimensions: individual versus collective passive versus active direct versus indirect behavioural versus verbal or attitudinal minor versus major.

Similarly two broad types of resistance can be considered:

Resistance to the content of change - for example to a specific change in technology, to the introduction of a particular reward system. Resistance to the process of change. This concerns the way a change is introduced rather than the object of change per se, for example, management re-structure jobs, without prior consultation of affected employees.

Reasons for resistance include

loss of control shock of new Uncertainty Inconvenience threat to status competence fears It is important to try to diagnose the cause of employee resistance as this will help determine the focus of effort in trying to reduce/remove the issue.

What can be done to make change management more effective?

Leadership:Effective leadership is a key enabler as it provides the vision and the rationale for change.

Different styles of leadership have been identified, for example coercive, directive, consultative and collaborative. These different styles may each be appropriate depending on the type and scale of change being undertaken. For example, when there is a large-scale organisation-wide change a directive style has been identified as most effective.

What can be done to make change management more effective?

Training: Appropriate and timely training is frequently identified as key to effective change. Examples of training requirements might include:

Project and programme management skills to ensure change initiatives are completed both on time and to budget. Change management skills, including communication and facilitation. leadership coaching.

What can be done to make change management more effective?

Communication: Two-way communication with employees and their active involvement in implementation has also been identified as a key enabler of change. Active participation is one suggested means of overcoming resistance to change. (CFT)

The seven C's of change

Choosing a team. Crafting the vision and the path. Connecting organisation-wide change. Consulting stakeholders. Communicating. Coping with change. Capturing learning.

Rewards and Recognition

Understanding Reward & Recognition

Definitions: A reward is an item or experience with monetary value that is provided for a desired behavior or performance, often with accompanying recognition Recognition is a positive consequence provided to a person for a behavior or a result in the form of acknowledgement, approval or the expression of gratitude Recognition is more of an activity or an association (a social or interpersonal activity) while a Reward is more of a thing (Money, Merchandise, Trophy, Travel etc)b

Why Reward & Recognise employees

By valuating and recognizing people, you harness the power of motivation, which is the single most powerful strategy used to promote performance and positive behaviors

Drives Stretch in Performance Enhances aspirations and creates Motivation Feeling Valued Builds Self Esteem and sense of Belonging Improves Individual Attitudes

Reward is a Right; Recognition is a Gift..

Rewards at work

Recognition

Direct Financial (pay) Indirect Financial (benefits) Work Content (work) Careers (development) Affiliation (feeling of belonging) Study results: Surprisingly, all 5 types of rewards were considered equally important.

Praise Time Toys, Trophies & Trinkets Fun, Freedom & Food Small Money Others
Common thread Genuine, positive, emotion

* Gerald Ledford Jr. and Peter LeBlanc, World at Work 9, no.3 (Q3 2000):1-11

What is Recognition?
Recognition is any thought, word, or deed towards making someone feel appreciated for who they are and recognized for what they do. 1 Recognition can be a strategic tool for shaping behavior and moving an organization in a desired direction. 2

Recognition is something a manager should be doing all the time its a running dialogue with people. 3

1 2

Making Recognition a Daily Event by Roy Saunderson, Recognition Management Institute

A Culture of Recognition; Building a System to Celebrate Great Performance by Rhonda Sunnarborg, BI Business Improvement Series
3

Ron Zemke, Training magazine

Why Focus on Recognition?

Employees identify recognition as one of the most effective motivators1 Even small increases in supportive practices are associated with decreased turnover and increased sales/profitability2 Employees who feel that their organization values them are more likely to value their customers2 Appreciation and/or praise are among the top three drivers of employee motivation and engagement across a variety of industries and companies3
1

The Conference Board, 1999 HR Executive Review: Employee Recognition Programs Pfeffer 2001 study Hewitt Associates

2 3

Differentiation between Reward and Recognition Reward

Monetary

A reward is given by an organization to value something it already has or it ascribes a value to a particular job / event

Recognition

Feelings

A recognition is just an expression of feeling. It happens when a person is impacted by another person and he / she expresses it openly

Recognition Jeopardy

How many managers feel that appreciating others is a major part of their job ?

Very FEW

Recognition Jeopardy

What causes you the most dissatisfaction at work ? Lack of appreciation

A Challenging Situation
Employee faith and loyalty in organizations dropping! 40% of employees feel unappreciated 1 in 3 workers are unhappy and not engaged not feeling appreciated may be the #1 reason people leave a job 61% of employees received no meaningful praise in the past year

Who needs appreciation?

78% of employees feel it is very important to be recognized by their manager I can live for two months on a good compliment! Mark Twain I now perceive one immense omission in my psychology the deepest principle of human nature is the craving to be appreciated. William James

Informal Recognition: Building A Culture

Understand organizational goals/values Determine the goals of the recognition initiative Know your staff better How to do it every day

Look for recognition opportunities Thanks, praise and feedback

Organisations Goals / Values

What values and goals does the organization want to promote? Relative importance? Relative impact? What specific values and goals will be addressed with recognition efforts?

Potential Initiative Goals

Create a positive work environment 80% Create a culture 76% Motivate high performance 75% Reinforce desired behaviors 75% Increase morale 71% Support organizational values/goals 66% Increase retention 51% Encourage loyalty 40% Others communication, teambuilding, focus
NAER 2003 Recognition Survey

Recognition Follies If we want

better people skills

Why do we often recognize

technical achievements

innovative thinking

no mistakes

tight control over employee development resources

Remember you get what you recognize!

Potential Benefits

Positive workplace Support of organizations goals Increased retention Higher performance More innovation/better economics

Potential Benefits

Positive workplace Support organizations goals Increased retention Higher performance More innovation/better economics

Increased self-esteem An employee who feels more valued A more committed, engaged analyst Strengthened bond between the analyst and manager A more focused manager

Getting to know what your people want

Challenging, interesting work A collegial work environment Work that supports growth and personal achievement Good communications and supportive relationships Recognition for new promising ideas Support for risk taking Clearly integrated technical/business goals

Good Recognition

As immediate as possible Specific

What did you see How did it impact the situation or the organization

In a form meaningful to the employee Provided in a way meaningful to the employee Recognizes work in progress/efforts as well Recognizes everyone including high performers

Effective Ways to Recognize Thanks! including feedback Employee involvement Responsibility and authority Employee development The work itself Attention Professional recognition

Highly Valued Forms of Recognition

1. Managers support and involvement 2. Personal praise 3. More responsibility 4. More authority

Employee Involvement
Ask for their opinions and ideas

Implement their ideas whenever possible

Include them in planning and decision making Provide as much information as possible Let them represent the lab Suggest participation on special teams and committees

Responsibility/Authority

More freedom to work independently More opportunities to self-manage Higher levels of responsibility Empowerment to make more decisions Ability/responsibility to improve processes

Employee Development Provide opportunities to fulfill their own goals Freedom to work more independently Formal training opportunities

In or out-of-house Let them use the new skills immediately Let them brief others

Recognize individual talents when assigning work

(ASAP)3 = Effective Praising

As soon As sincere As specific

As personal As positive As proactive

1997 by Bob Nelson

(scientific version of ASAP-Cubed)

Recognition Using Feedback

Feedback is a powerful form of praise Addresses important values of challenging work and excellent performance Shows your concern and interest Positive AND constructive messages cant have one without the other Enhances intrinsic motivation A positive cycle of excellent work leading to higher motivation from the work leading to higher performance.

ALMA Roundtable Insights

Thanks is highly effective if reinforced over time Recognition must be sincere, timely, appropriate Tailor the recognition/reward The more personal the better Show appreciation in various ways Personal notes Pass along or post messages of appreciation Post successes Recognition/rewards are not motivators, but they keep motivated people from becoming demotivated

Potential Obstacles?

Managerial behavior

Mismatch with environment/culture Expectancy/reinforcement theory Recognizing the wrong behavior or value

Intrinsic motivation the Pareto 20%

Measuring Success
1. Response to surveys 2. Performance development meetings 3. Retention rates 4. Exit interviews

ALMA Roundtable 2005

Exercise

You are the HR Manager of an FMCG organisation which has 400 employees at their HO. You have been asked to develop an R&R program for your organisation to keep employees engaged and motivation levels high. A separate budget would be provided for the R&R activities. You and you team has to design a program and present it to your leadership team.

A Closing Thought
the best success we can have in getting managers and supervisors to recognize employees more often is less a function of awareness of the importance of recognition and the skills of providing recognition and more a function of getting managers to personally experience the power of recognition.

Bob Nelson

Business Ethics

Business ethics is a form of the art of applied ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment.

General business ethics

This part of business ethics overlaps with the philosophy of business, one of the aims of which is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. If a company's main purpose is to maximize the returns to its shareholders, then it could be seen as unethical for a company to consider the interests and rights of anyone else. Corporate social responsibility or CSR: an umbrella term under which the ethical rights and duties existing between companies and society is debated. Issues regarding the moral rights and duties between a company and its shareholders: fiduciary responsibility, stakeholder concept v. shareholder concept. Ethical issues concerning relations between different companies: e.g. hostile take-overs, industrial espionage. Leadership issues: corporate governance. Political contributions made by corporations. Law reform, such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of corporate manslaughter.

Thank you