What

do the insides of a computer look like ?

As users, we do not have to know the answer to this question,

We can run standard software packages without understanding exactly how they work. We can program a computer in a high-level language without understanding how the machine executes the individual instructions. We can create Web pages without understanding how the Web browser gets its pages from a Web server or how the Web server creates those pages. We can purchase a computer system from a salesperson without understanding the specifications of the system

Understanding the computer systems operations has an immediate benefit:

it will allow you to use the machine more effectively.

Chapter 1 :

Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a programmer, or put another way, those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program The later definition (architecture) concerns more about the performance Architecture concerns more about the basic instruction design, that may lead to better performance of the system

Example of architectural attributes include, instruction set, the number of bit used to represent various data type (number or characters),I/O mechanism and techniques for addressing memory

 Computer

organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications Organizational, is the implementation of computer system, in terms of its interconnection of functional units : CPU, memory, bus and I/O devices

Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the programmer, such as control signal, interface between computer and periperals and the memory technology used. Example : IBM/S-370 family architecture. There are plenty of IBM products having the same architecture (S-370) but different organization, depending on its price/performance measures. Cost and performance differs the organizations So, organization of a computer is the implementation of its architecture, but tailored to fit the intended price and performance measures.

The Reason : (Stallings arguments) Able to select proper computer systems for a particular environment (cost and effectiveness) Able to analyzed a processor embedded to an environment. Able to analyzed the use of processor in automobile, able to use proper tools to analyzed Able to choose proper software for a particular computer system

First Generation (1939 -1954) - vacuum tube Second Generation Computers (1954 -1959) transistor Third Generation Computers (1959 -1971) - IC Fourth Generation (1971-Present) - microprocessor Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)

A digital computer can be separated into 4 major parts:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 2. Memory Unit 3. Input/Output Unit (I/O) 4. BUS interconnection

Address Bus

CPU

Data Bus

(Memory Unit)

Control Bus

Input Device

I/O Unit
Output Device

Motherboard

The Motherboard
Microprocessor Keyboard / Mouse Ports

Memory Slots
Printer Port

Video Port AGP Slot PCI Slots Chipset

Is the brains of computer The place where all processing have to be done Responsible to control computer operation and execute data processing. Four main parts of CPU

1. ALU (arithmetic logic unit) 2. CU (Control logic unit) 3. ID (Instruction Decoder) 4. Registers

4 REGISTERS

3
INSTRUCTION DECODER (ID)

ACCUMULATOR
INSTRUCTION REGISTER (IR) PROGRAM COUNTER (PC) STATUS REGISTER (SR)

ARITHMATIC & LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

2
CONTROL UNIT

1. Arithmetic-Logic unit
Performs arithmetic or logical operations

2. Control unit
Coordinates and controls all parts of the computer system

3. Instruction Decoder
Decode the instruction

4. Registers

4. Instruction decoder
A(Accumulator) : Store data from memory before and after process by CPU PC(Program Counter) : Controls the sequence in which the instruction in a program are performed. Normally, it

indicates the location in memory from which the next byte of information is to be taken

4. Registers
SR(Status Register): It also refer to as the flag register. Four of the flags are called conditional flag, meaning that they indicate some conditions that resulted after an instruction was executed (CY,AC,P and OV)

IR(Instruction Register) : A temporary storage location . It holds an instruction while the instruction is being decoded.

 Manages four basic operations (Fetch, Decode, Execute, Store)

Fetch : Gets next program instruction from the computers memory Decode : Figure out what the program is telling the computer to do Execute : Perform the requested action Store : Write (store) the results to a register or to memory

Pentium IV

Intel
Pentium III Core 2 Duo

Cyrix

Pentium MMX

Motorola (Apple)
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)

MEMORY

PRIMARY/MAIN MEMORY

SECONDARY MEMORY

ROM

RAM

HARD DISK

FLOPPY DISK

FIRMWARE BOOTING PROGRAM

WORKING STORAGE

Also known as main storage, primer memory As contemporary storage for processing and can directly accessed by CPU in high speed of light. Use for holding both instruction and data

Volatile memory (Random Access Memory/RAM; Cache Memory; Virtual Memory)

supply is turned off. Also called Temporary storage.

Contents of memory are erased when power

Nonvolatile memory (Read Only Memory/ROM; Flash Memory) Contents of memory are not erased when
power is turned off. Also called Permanent storage.

 RAM

is used in computer for the temporary storage of programs and data. The contents of many RAM address location will be read and written to as the computer executes a program. This requires fast read and write cycle times for the RAM so as not to slow down the computer operation.

A major disadvantage of RAM is that it is volatile and will lose all stored information if power is turned off.

HOW RAM WORKS

CLICK TO BEGIN ANIMATION

MONITOR

WEB

KEYBOARD

RAM

CPU

What are the different types of RAM?

Rambus DRAM (RDRAM) Uses fast bus to send and receive data within one clock cycle. Faster than SDRAM Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM) A type of SDRAM that can send and receive data within one clock cycle

Dynamic RAM- A memory chip that needs to be refreshed periodically or it loses its data Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)Synchronized with the computers system clock

 The

purpose of cache memory is to speed up accesses by storing recently used data closer to the CPU, instead of storing it in main memory. Although cache is much smaller than main memory, its access time is a fraction of that of main memory.

Primary cache (Level 1 or L1)

Located within the CPU chip, it is the memory

Secondary cache (Level 2 or L2; Backside Cache) Faster than RAM

the CPU and RAM

the microprocessor uses to store frequently used instructions and data

Located near the CPU, it is the memory between

Part of the hard disk is reserved as RAM When RAM modules become full the CPU accesses the hard disk to store and retrieve data Slower than RAM
FULL

Computers accept coded information by means of inputs units, which consist of devices capable of reading such data.
For example: keyboard, mouse

Output units is the counterpart of the input and its functions is to return the results to the output world
For example: monitor, printer

Pathways that enable the CPU to communicate with input/output devices Typically the buses contain slots called expansion slots, in which expansion cards are inserted

Expansion slots Expansion card

Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)Personal Computer Interface (PCI)

Faster than ISA; supports plug and
Slowest type of bus

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Designed for video adapters

play

Allows up to 127 devices to be

connected to the computer at one time; supports plug and play

An important aspect of the computer architecture is the design of the instruction set of processor The instruction set chosen for a particular computer determines the way that the machine language program are constructed Early computers had small and simple instruction sets, forced mainly by the need to minimize the hardware used to implement them constructed.

A computer with a large number of instructions is classified as a Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC). A number of computer designers recommended that computers use fewer instructions with simple constructs so they can be executed much faster and this type of computer is classified as a Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC).

RISC Relatively few instructions to perform task. Relatively few addressing modes.

CISC Large number of instructions to perform any task. A larger variety of addressing modes typically from 5 to 20 different modes.

Memory access limited to LOAD and STORE instructions only. All operations are done within the registers of the CPU.

Some instructions that perform specialized tasks are used infrequently. Instructions that manipulate operands in memory.

Fixed-length, easily decoded instruction Variable-length instruction format. format. Hardwired control. Microprogrammed control

An assembly language is low-level programming language for computers, microprocessors, microcontroller and other programmable devices. It implements a symbolic representation of the machine codes and other constant needed to a program a given CPU architecture

The format of assembly language consists of four field (column) as below:

LABEL

Label is used to represent the location

of an instruction or a value. It has to begin no spacing. It can form by using not more than 8 characters including numbers. But the first character must be an alphabet. Between the label instruction, there must be at least one. It always used for jump and loop instruction

 OPCODE

/ MNEMONIC code Stand for the word operational code and known as MNEMONIC code. Mnemonic code are commands that tell the controller what to do. Example of instructions are MOV, CPL, RET and etc. MOV A, #00000000B Told the 8051 to load data 00000000B in to Accumulator register

 OPERAND

Data, address or register that the

opcode will operate on This field is devided in two group which is the source and the destination. For example,in the MCS51 format, the source is the operand in the right place and the destination is the operand in the left. MOV A, #00000000B

 Address

part A memory address is an identifier for a memory location. An absolute address, (sometimes called an explicit address or specific address), is a memory address that uniquely identifies a location in memory Example: In 8051 microcontroller : The Accumulator address is E0H (or 1110 0000B in binary)

 Contents

of Accumulator Accumulator is the most useful register in the microprocessor. During arithmetic and logic operation it performs a dual function. Before the operation, it holds one of the operands. After the operations, it holds the result (sum, difference or logical answer)

 Contents

of Accumulator Example : MOV A,#25H ADD A,#13H

Load Accumulator with data #25H Add the data in the Accumulator

(#25H) with #13H Save the answer in the Accumulator

A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular programming language and turns them into machine language or "code" that a computer's processor uses. Typically, a programmer writes language statements in a language such as Pascal or C one line at a time using an editor . The file that is created contains what are called the source statements . The programmer then runs the appropriate language compiler, specifying the name of the file that contains the source statements.

A high-level programming language is a programming language with strong abstraction from the details of the computer. In comparison to low-level programming languages, it may use natural language elements, be easier to use, or be more portable across platforms. Such languages hide the details of CPU operations such as memory access models and management of scope

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming language model organized around "objects" rather than "actions" and data rather than logic. Historically, a program has been viewed as a logical procedure that takes input data, processes it, and produces output data. Java, Python, C++, Visual Basic .NET and Ruby are the most popular OOP languages today

Contrast the meaning of computer architecture and organization The reason for studying computer architecture and computer organization Describe the typical CPU, Memory, Inpu/Output Mention CISC and SISC Differentiate operand, opcode Define compiler,high level and OOP language