Educational Research: Qualitative Research Methods

EDU 8603 Educational Research Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Qualitative research...

Commonly called interpretive research its methods rely heavily on thick verbal descriptions of a particular social context being studied

Is useful for describing or answering questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices a helpful process for exploring a complex research area about which little is known

Illuminates the invisibility of everyday life by making the familiar strange, more examined, and better understood

Qualitative methods...
historical research grounded theory ethnography phenomenology case study symbolic interaction ethology action research ethnomethodology

historical research studies available data to study, understand, and interpret past events

ethnography studies cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural settings

case study examines the characteristics of a particular entity, phenomenon, or person

ethology compares the origins, characteristics, and culture of different societies

ethnomethodology studies how people make sense of their everyday activities in order to behave in socially accepted ways

grounded theory investigates how inductively-derived theory about phenomenon is grounded in the data of a particular setting

phenomenology considers how the experience of particular participants exhibits a unique perspective

symbolic interaction investigates how people construct meaning and shared perspectives by interacting with others

action research teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve the practitioners practice by doing or changing something

Generally speaking, qualitative researchers. spend a great deal of time in the settings being studied (fieldwork) rely on themselves as the main instrument of data collection (subjectivity; intersubjectivity) analyze data using interpretative lenses

employ expressive language and voice in descriptions and explanations seek depth of perspective through ongoing analysis (i.e., waves of data) judged in terms of believability, trustworthiness, coherence, and the logic underlying researchers interpretations

The general characteristics of qualitative research...

Data sources are real-world situations Data are descriptive Emphasizes a holistic approach (processes and outcomes) Data analysis is inductive Describes the meaning(s) of research finding(s) from the perspective of the research participants

Uses inductive reasoning involves developing generalizations from a limited number of specific observations or experiences highly dependent on the number and representativeness of the specific observations used to make the generalization

 Issues in qualitative research...

a. gaining entry b. contacting potential research participants c. selecting participants d. enhancing validity and reducing bias e. leaving the field

a. gaining entry...

access is very much dependent upon the researchers personal characteristics and how others perceive the researcher may require considerable negotiation and compromise with a gatekeeper trust is earned, not given

b. contacting participants...

gaining access dealing with gatekeeper(s) issues of building trust and ensuring confidentiality and anonymity

c. selecting participants...

the goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied

is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied utilizes purposive sampling

types of purposive sampling maximum variation homogeneous critical case theory-based (dis)confirming case snowball (chain)

extreme (deviant) case typical case intensity politically important case random purposeful

stratified purposeful criterion opportunistic combination (mixed) convenience

two general guidelines: the number of participants is sufficient when the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting the point at which the data gathered begins to be redundant (data saturation)

The threats to validity in qualitative studies...

observer bias invalid information resulting from the perspective the researcher brings to the study and imposes upon it observer effects the impact of the observers participation on the setting or the participants being studied

d. strategies to enhance validity and to reduce bias...

extend the time for observing the setting include more participants to make the study more representative focus upon building participant trust in order to access more detailed and honest data

identify biases and preferences, seek them out by asking others work with another researcher and compare field notes and impressions from independent observations after observations are completed, offer participants an opportunity to validate accuracy of the verbatims

journalize ones own reflections, concerns, and uncertainties during the study and refer to them when examining the data carefully examine unusual or contradictory results for explanations (outliers)

utilize a variety of data sources to confirm one another to corroborate participant information (triangulation)

e. leaving the field

The question is when and how to exit the bonds formed with study participants complicate leaving the setting time constraints when the amount of accessible data is sufficient

The basic steps of qualitative research...

1. Write a tentative research proposal 2. Intensive participation in a field setting 3. Collect detailed data from field activities 4. Synthesize and interpret the meanings of the field data 5. Write the research report

1. The qualitative research proposal...

defines area of study identifies setting or context of study specifies the kinds of data to be collected describes methods to be used provides the researchers rationale for undertaking the study identifies the studys potential contribution(s)

2. Intensive participation in a field setting...

participation: as a participant (participant observer) or nonparticipant approach to participation: overt or covert requires experiencing the situation from the perspective of both an observer and a participant

3. Collecting and analyzing data...

primary tools include observations and interviews but can also include personal and official documents, photographs, recordings, drawings, emails, and informal conversations multiple data sources are normative

the researcher records descriptive as well as reflective notes about what one has seen, heard, experienced, and thought about a during an observation session

regarding field notes put aside assumptions, experience context first see phenomena through participants perspective write up notes immediately following an observation

detail is critical: include date, site, time, and topic on every set of field notes; leave wide margins for writing impressions; use only one side of a page of paper; draw diagram of site (if necessary) list key words first, then outline ones observations

keep the descriptive and reflective sections separate use memos to record hunches, questions, and insights after each observation number the lines or paragraphs for easy access

regarding interviews the purpose is to explore and to probe the interviewees responses in order to gather in-depth data the interviewer inquires into the interviewees attitudes, interests, feelings, concerns, and values as these relate to the context being studied

meaning is jointly constructed between the interviewer and the interviewee; meaning is not just a construction on the part of the interviewee

be alert for openings in responses to probe more deeply, starting with mundane questions and gradually easing into more sensitive and more complex questions

interview data collection techniques include taking notes during the interview, writing notes after the interview, or tape recording and transcribing the interview (the transcript is a verbatim)

Interview dos and donts...

Do listen more and talk less Do follow up on what is not clear and probe more deeply into what is revealed Dont use leading questions; do use open-ended questions (probes) Dont interrupt; do wait

Do keep interviewee(s) focused Do ask for concrete details Do tolerate silence and space between interviewees responses; do allow the interviewee time to think Dont be judgmental about or react to an interviewees opinions, views, or beliefs

Dont engage in debate with an interviewee Do record everything the interviewee says and note impressions of interviewees nonverbal behavior

4. Synthesis and interpretation of the meanings of field data...

a formidable task because data are thick and deep as well as voluminous and unorganized (field notes) involves a systematic and iterative process of searching, categorizing, and integrating data (managing data) understanding emerges as data are integrated

Analyzing field data

data pieces

data categories data patterns

 four-step iterative process of data management...

a. reading and memoing to become familiar with data and to identify main themes b. examining data to develop detailed descriptions of the setting, participants, and activities

c. classifying the data, including categorization, coding, and grouping into thematic units d. interpreting and synthesizing the organized data into general conclusions or understandings

Involves working with field notes deconstructing data into pieces reconstructing the data pieces into categories identifying patterns for understanding, synthesis, and interpretation

 Criteria suitable for qualitative data analysis...

a. credibility or plausibility b. transferability c. including a methods section

credibility or plausibility to demonstrate that the study was conducted in such a manner as to ensure that the subject was accurately identified and described

transferability to demonstrate that the results of the study are generalizable to others in the original research context or to contexts beyond the original study

including a methods section to provide an in-depth description of the processes and methods used in the study

 Strategies for analyzing qualitative data...

a. constant comparison method b. negative case and discrepant data methods c. analytic induction

constant comparison method compares new evidence to prior evidence to identify similarities and differences between observations

negative case and discrepant data methods the search for contradictory, variant, or disconfirming data within the body of data collected that provides an alternative perspective on an emerging category or pattern

analytic induction a process concerned with developing and testing a theory in order to generalize a studys findings

5. Writing the research report...

provide a setting where the data were collected identify characters who provide information describe the social action in which the characters are engaged offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters

offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters follow all APA Publication Manual guidelines

Mini-Quiz

True and false

Qualitative research methods are rooted in the disciplines of sociology, anthropology, and history rather than in mathematics.
True

True and false The central focus of qualitative research is to provide understanding of a social setting or activity from the perspective of the research participants
True

True and false Empathic neutrality requires a researcher to include ones personal experience and empathic insight as part of the relevant data
True

True and false An interviewer constructs the meaning of the content of an interview
False

True and false One of the first issues in qualitative research is to gain entry to a site
True

True and false One indicator that an adequate number of participants has been selected is the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting
True

True and false Purposive sampling strategies are especially useful in qualitative research
True

True and false A qualitative researcher should be wary of potential participants who are extremely eager to be included in the study
True

True and false A covert participant observer participates as well as collects data during an observation session
True

True and false Each observation session has its unique focus and interactions but is guided by a protocol or list of issues that frame the observation
True

True and false In qualitative research, data analysis begins as the researcher initiates data management
False

True and false An interviewer will almost always meet face-to-face with an interviewee while some observers will not.
True

True and false Transcripts are the field notes of an interview session
True

True and false Data analysis and interpretation are based on induction as the qualitative researcher discovers patterns emerging from the data and makes sense of them
True

True and false There are no predefined variables to focus qualitative analysis of the data
True

True and false Credibility or plausibility demonstrates that the study was conducted in such a manner that the subject was accurately identified and described
True

True and false The process of analyzing qualitative research data follows a sequential four-step process
False

True and false The ability of the researcher to induce or construct meaning from the data greatly influences the duration and quality of the data analysis
True

True and false Implicitly or explicitly, a researcher interprets data whenever the researcher uses a conceptual basis or understanding to cluster a variety of data pieces into a category
True

Fill in the blank Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; nonmanipulative, unobtrusive, and noncontrolling; open to whatever emerges due to a lack of predetermined constraints on outcomes
naturalistic inquiry

Fill in the blank Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important categories, dimensions, and interrelationships; begins by exploring genuinely open questions rather than testing theoretically derived hypotheses
inductive analysis

Fill in the blank The entire phenomenon is understood as a complex system more than the sum of its parts; the focus is upon complex interdependencies not meaningfully reduced to a few discrete variables and linear, cause-effect relationships
holistic perspective

Fill in the blank A detailed, thick description; inquiry in depth; direct quotations capturing peoples personal perspectives and experiences
qualitative data

Fill in the blank Attention to process; assumes change is constant and ongoing whether the focus is upon an individual or an entire culture
dynamic systems

Fill in the blank The first level of qualitative inquiry requires the researcher to be true to, respectful of, and to capture the essential details of the individual context being studied
unique case orientation

Fill in the blank To place findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; dubious about the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space
context sensitivity

Fill in the blank The researchers passion is understanding the world in all its complexity, not proving something, not advocating, not advancing personal agendas, but understanding
empathic neutrality

Fill in the blank The researcher resides in the study context but disguises his or her identity from the other participants
covert participation

Fill in the blank The researchers openness to adapting ones research as understanding deepens and/or situations change; the willingness to pursue new paths of discovery as they emerge
design flexibility

Fill in the blank The point at which the researcher begins to hear similar thoughts, perspectives, and responses from more or all of the participants
data saturation

Fill in the blank Providing information to a participant about the nature and purpose of the study
informed consent

Fill in the blank The process of qualitative data collection

fieldwork

Fill in the blank The observers record about what has been seen, heard, experienced, and thought about during an observation session
field notes

Fill in the blank Evolving data analysis involves a form of thinking on paper through which the researcher describes ones mental explorations of ideas, themes, hunches, and reflections about the research topic
memo writing

Fill in the blank An extensive, descriptive, and lucid report of the researchers observations, partially influenced by what the researcher sees but mainly by the detail and language the researcher uses in constructing the report
thick description

Fill in the blank An purposeful interaction, usually between two people, focused upon one person attempting to access information from another person
interview

Fill in the blank The word-for-word transcript of an interview session

verbatim

Fill in the blank Unusual or contradictory results from an observation or interview

outlier

Fill in the blank The point at which the data gathered becomes redundant
data saturation

Fill in the blank Creating and organizing qualitative data collected during the study
data management

Fill in the blank The process of recording the researchers initial thoughts and early impressions of the data
memoing

Fill in the blank The process where the qualitative researcher provides an accurate depiction of the settings and events that took place in it which yields an understanding of the context in which the study took place
description

Fill in the blank The process of breaking down the data into smaller units, determining the import of the units, and organizing the units together again in an interpreted form
classifying

Fill in the blank A qualitative method for classifying data where the researcher begins with a preliminary hypothesis and continuously refines it until there are no examples of the revised hypothesis not being upheld
analytic induction

Fill in the blank A form of cross-validation that seeks regularities in the data by comparing different participants, settings, and methods to identify recurring results
triangulation

Analogies

content : method as characteristics of a single person or phenomenon : _______________

case study

Analogies

content : method as a groups cultural patterns and perspectives : _______________

ethnography

Analogies content : method as the link between a groups everyday activities and its social structure : _______________
ethnomethodology

Analogies content : method as the link between participants perspectives and social science theory : _______________
grounded theory

Analogies content : method as the meanings and perspectives gained by interactions : _______________
symbolic interactionism

Analogies content : method as How participants experience a variety of things : _______________

phenomenology

Analogies content : method as A change in student learning : _______________

action research

Analogies quantitative : qualitative as population : _______________

setting

Analogies quantitative : qualitative as generalizability : _______________

transferability

This module has focused on...

qualitative research methods
which describe or answer questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices

The next module will focus on...

action research
...teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve the practitioners practice by doing or changing something