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Qualitative research...
Commonly called interpretive research its methods rely heavily on thick verbal descriptions of a particular social context being studied
Is useful for describing or answering questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices a helpful process for exploring a complex research area about which little is known
Illuminates the invisibility of everyday life by making the familiar strange, more examined, and better understood
Qualitative methods...
historical research grounded theory ethnography phenomenology case study symbolic interaction ethology action research ethnomethodology
historical research studies available data to study, understand, and interpret past events
ethnography studies cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural settings
ethnomethodology studies how people make sense of their everyday activities in order to behave in socially accepted ways
grounded theory investigates how inductively-derived theory about phenomenon is grounded in the data of a particular setting
phenomenology considers how the experience of particular participants exhibits a unique perspective
symbolic interaction investigates how people construct meaning and shared perspectives by interacting with others
action research teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve the practitioners practice by doing or changing something
Generally speaking, qualitative researchers. spend a great deal of time in the settings being studied (fieldwork) rely on themselves as the main instrument of data collection (subjectivity; intersubjectivity) analyze data using interpretative lenses
employ expressive language and voice in descriptions and explanations seek depth of perspective through ongoing analysis (i.e., waves of data) judged in terms of believability, trustworthiness, coherence, and the logic underlying researchers interpretations
Uses inductive reasoning involves developing generalizations from a limited number of specific observations or experiences highly dependent on the number and representativeness of the specific observations used to make the generalization
a. gaining entry...
access is very much dependent upon the researchers personal characteristics and how others perceive the researcher may require considerable negotiation and compromise with a gatekeeper trust is earned, not given
b. contacting participants...
gaining access dealing with gatekeeper(s) issues of building trust and ensuring confidentiality and anonymity
c. selecting participants...
the goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied
is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied utilizes purposive sampling
types of purposive sampling maximum variation homogeneous critical case theory-based (dis)confirming case snowball (chain)
extreme (deviant) case typical case intensity politically important case random purposeful
two general guidelines: the number of participants is sufficient when the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting the point at which the data gathered begins to be redundant (data saturation)
extend the time for observing the setting include more participants to make the study more representative focus upon building participant trust in order to access more detailed and honest data
identify biases and preferences, seek them out by asking others work with another researcher and compare field notes and impressions from independent observations after observations are completed, offer participants an opportunity to validate accuracy of the verbatims
journalize ones own reflections, concerns, and uncertainties during the study and refer to them when examining the data carefully examine unusual or contradictory results for explanations (outliers)
utilize a variety of data sources to confirm one another to corroborate participant information (triangulation)
The question is when and how to exit the bonds formed with study participants complicate leaving the setting time constraints when the amount of accessible data is sufficient
defines area of study identifies setting or context of study specifies the kinds of data to be collected describes methods to be used provides the researchers rationale for undertaking the study identifies the studys potential contribution(s)
participation: as a participant (participant observer) or nonparticipant approach to participation: overt or covert requires experiencing the situation from the perspective of both an observer and a participant
primary tools include observations and interviews but can also include personal and official documents, photographs, recordings, drawings, emails, and informal conversations multiple data sources are normative
the researcher records descriptive as well as reflective notes about what one has seen, heard, experienced, and thought about a during an observation session
regarding field notes put aside assumptions, experience context first see phenomena through participants perspective write up notes immediately following an observation
detail is critical: include date, site, time, and topic on every set of field notes; leave wide margins for writing impressions; use only one side of a page of paper; draw diagram of site (if necessary) list key words first, then outline ones observations
keep the descriptive and reflective sections separate use memos to record hunches, questions, and insights after each observation number the lines or paragraphs for easy access
regarding interviews the purpose is to explore and to probe the interviewees responses in order to gather in-depth data the interviewer inquires into the interviewees attitudes, interests, feelings, concerns, and values as these relate to the context being studied
meaning is jointly constructed between the interviewer and the interviewee; meaning is not just a construction on the part of the interviewee
be alert for openings in responses to probe more deeply, starting with mundane questions and gradually easing into more sensitive and more complex questions
interview data collection techniques include taking notes during the interview, writing notes after the interview, or tape recording and transcribing the interview (the transcript is a verbatim)
Do listen more and talk less Do follow up on what is not clear and probe more deeply into what is revealed Dont use leading questions; do use open-ended questions (probes) Dont interrupt; do wait
Do keep interviewee(s) focused Do ask for concrete details Do tolerate silence and space between interviewees responses; do allow the interviewee time to think Dont be judgmental about or react to an interviewees opinions, views, or beliefs
Dont engage in debate with an interviewee Do record everything the interviewee says and note impressions of interviewees nonverbal behavior
a formidable task because data are thick and deep as well as voluminous and unorganized (field notes) involves a systematic and iterative process of searching, categorizing, and integrating data (managing data) understanding emerges as data are integrated
c. classifying the data, including categorization, coding, and grouping into thematic units d. interpreting and synthesizing the organized data into general conclusions or understandings
Involves working with field notes deconstructing data into pieces reconstructing the data pieces into categories identifying patterns for understanding, synthesis, and interpretation
credibility or plausibility to demonstrate that the study was conducted in such a manner as to ensure that the subject was accurately identified and described
transferability to demonstrate that the results of the study are generalizable to others in the original research context or to contexts beyond the original study
including a methods section to provide an in-depth description of the processes and methods used in the study
constant comparison method compares new evidence to prior evidence to identify similarities and differences between observations
negative case and discrepant data methods the search for contradictory, variant, or disconfirming data within the body of data collected that provides an alternative perspective on an emerging category or pattern
analytic induction a process concerned with developing and testing a theory in order to generalize a studys findings
provide a setting where the data were collected identify characters who provide information describe the social action in which the characters are engaged offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters
offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters follow all APA Publication Manual guidelines
Mini-Quiz
Qualitative research methods are rooted in the disciplines of sociology, anthropology, and history rather than in mathematics.
True
True and false The central focus of qualitative research is to provide understanding of a social setting or activity from the perspective of the research participants
True
True and false Empathic neutrality requires a researcher to include ones personal experience and empathic insight as part of the relevant data
True
True and false An interviewer constructs the meaning of the content of an interview
False
True and false One of the first issues in qualitative research is to gain entry to a site
True
True and false One indicator that an adequate number of participants has been selected is the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting
True
True and false Purposive sampling strategies are especially useful in qualitative research
True
True and false A qualitative researcher should be wary of potential participants who are extremely eager to be included in the study
True
True and false A covert participant observer participates as well as collects data during an observation session
True
True and false Each observation session has its unique focus and interactions but is guided by a protocol or list of issues that frame the observation
True
True and false In qualitative research, data analysis begins as the researcher initiates data management
False
True and false An interviewer will almost always meet face-to-face with an interviewee while some observers will not.
True
True and false Transcripts are the field notes of an interview session
True
True and false Data analysis and interpretation are based on induction as the qualitative researcher discovers patterns emerging from the data and makes sense of them
True
True and false There are no predefined variables to focus qualitative analysis of the data
True
True and false Credibility or plausibility demonstrates that the study was conducted in such a manner that the subject was accurately identified and described
True
True and false The process of analyzing qualitative research data follows a sequential four-step process
False
True and false The ability of the researcher to induce or construct meaning from the data greatly influences the duration and quality of the data analysis
True
True and false Implicitly or explicitly, a researcher interprets data whenever the researcher uses a conceptual basis or understanding to cluster a variety of data pieces into a category
True
Fill in the blank Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; nonmanipulative, unobtrusive, and noncontrolling; open to whatever emerges due to a lack of predetermined constraints on outcomes
naturalistic inquiry
Fill in the blank Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important categories, dimensions, and interrelationships; begins by exploring genuinely open questions rather than testing theoretically derived hypotheses
inductive analysis
Fill in the blank The entire phenomenon is understood as a complex system more than the sum of its parts; the focus is upon complex interdependencies not meaningfully reduced to a few discrete variables and linear, cause-effect relationships
holistic perspective
Fill in the blank A detailed, thick description; inquiry in depth; direct quotations capturing peoples personal perspectives and experiences
qualitative data
Fill in the blank Attention to process; assumes change is constant and ongoing whether the focus is upon an individual or an entire culture
dynamic systems
Fill in the blank The first level of qualitative inquiry requires the researcher to be true to, respectful of, and to capture the essential details of the individual context being studied
unique case orientation
Fill in the blank To place findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; dubious about the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space
context sensitivity
Fill in the blank The researchers passion is understanding the world in all its complexity, not proving something, not advocating, not advancing personal agendas, but understanding
empathic neutrality
Fill in the blank The researcher resides in the study context but disguises his or her identity from the other participants
covert participation
Fill in the blank The researchers openness to adapting ones research as understanding deepens and/or situations change; the willingness to pursue new paths of discovery as they emerge
design flexibility
Fill in the blank The point at which the researcher begins to hear similar thoughts, perspectives, and responses from more or all of the participants
data saturation
Fill in the blank Providing information to a participant about the nature and purpose of the study
informed consent
Fill in the blank The observers record about what has been seen, heard, experienced, and thought about during an observation session
field notes
Fill in the blank Evolving data analysis involves a form of thinking on paper through which the researcher describes ones mental explorations of ideas, themes, hunches, and reflections about the research topic
memo writing
Fill in the blank An extensive, descriptive, and lucid report of the researchers observations, partially influenced by what the researcher sees but mainly by the detail and language the researcher uses in constructing the report
thick description
Fill in the blank An purposeful interaction, usually between two people, focused upon one person attempting to access information from another person
interview
Fill in the blank The point at which the data gathered becomes redundant
data saturation
Fill in the blank Creating and organizing qualitative data collected during the study
data management
Fill in the blank The process of recording the researchers initial thoughts and early impressions of the data
memoing
Fill in the blank The process where the qualitative researcher provides an accurate depiction of the settings and events that took place in it which yields an understanding of the context in which the study took place
description
Fill in the blank The process of breaking down the data into smaller units, determining the import of the units, and organizing the units together again in an interpreted form
classifying
Fill in the blank A qualitative method for classifying data where the researcher begins with a preliminary hypothesis and continuously refines it until there are no examples of the revised hypothesis not being upheld
analytic induction
Fill in the blank A form of cross-validation that seeks regularities in the data by comparing different participants, settings, and methods to identify recurring results
triangulation
Analogies
Analogies
Analogies content : method as the link between a groups everyday activities and its social structure : _______________
ethnomethodology
Analogies content : method as the link between participants perspectives and social science theory : _______________
grounded theory
Analogies content : method as the meanings and perspectives gained by interactions : _______________
symbolic interactionism