Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
a. shouting and screaming at your children is wrong. b. Elizabeth is more beautiful than Mary. Getting married and having children is better than (Huang, 2007)
Sentences like:
Good
morning! Is she a vegan? Put the car in the garage, please are not statements, therefore cannot be either true or false
I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow. I hereby christen this ship the H.M.S. Flounder. I declare war on Zanzibar. I apologize. I dub thee Sir Walter I object. I sentence you to ten years of hard labour. I bequeath you my Raffael I give my word I warn you that trespassers will be prosecuted.
UTTERANCES
CONSTATIVES
STATE THINGS
h
People do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances. (1) You`re fired. The utterance can be used to perform the act of ending your employment. However, the actions performed by utterances do not have to be dramatic or unpleasant. (2a) You `re welcome.
speech event.
Actions
performed via utterances are called SPEECH ACTS (apology, complaint, promise, or request)
The
speaker and the hearer are helped in this process by the circumstances surrounding the utterance. These are called Speech Events.
In
many ways, the circumstances are the ones that determine the interpretation of the Speech Act
e.g.
Speech acts
The action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts:
LOCUTIONARY
ILLOCUTIONARY
ACT is performed via the communicative force of an utterance previous example might be
The
PERLOCUTIONARY
e.g. The hearer, on hearing the sentence above might react by accepting a cup of coffee if Interprets the perlocutionary act.
The
Examples:
Give me an apple. Locutionary act: the utterance itself. Illocutionary act: Request, command. Perlocutionary act (presumably): A passes B an apple.
IFIDS
Or,
The
most obvious for indicating the illocutionary force is an expression shown in (6). The verb shown can be called a performative verb (Vp). 6. I (Vp) you that
Speakers
act
Him:
Can I talk to Mary? Her: No, She`s not here. Him: I am asking you can I talk to her? Her: And I am telling you SHE IS NOT HERE!
OTHER IFIDS
STRESS
INTONATION
WORD
ORDER e.g. Youre going (I tell you) Youre going? (I request confirmation? Are you going? (I ask you if)
FELICITY CONDITIONS
APPROPRIATE
CIRCUMSTANCES FOR THE PERFORMANCE OF A SPEECH ACT TO BE RECOGNIZED AS SUCH. e.g. (9) I sentence you to six months in prison
In example 9, above, the performance will be infelicitous (inappropriate) if the speaker is not a specific person in a special context.
(A) i. There must be a conventional procedure having a conventional effect. ii. The circumstances and persons must be appropriate as specified in the procedure (Note that these procedures must be such that verbal action suffices to achieve some effect; compare: *I hereby fry this egg) (B) The procedure must be executed completely and correctly.
C)
Usually, i. the persons must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, as specified in the procedure, and ii. if consequent conduct is specified, then the relevant parties must do so.
Felicity conditions
General e.g. they understand the language A promise Content e.g. a promise of a future act of the
speaker
Sincerity
e.g. must be genuine Essential e.g. when uttering a promise, one changes a non-obligation to an obligation
every utterance (U) there is a clause containing a performative verb (VP). The basic format of the underlying clause is shown in (10).
11 and 12 a and b
performatives
Implicit
performatives
Declarations: which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic insititutions (excommunicating, declaring war, christening, firing from employment) Expressives: which express a psychological state (thanking, apologizing, welcoming, congratulating)
which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition (paradigm cases: asserting, concluding, etc.) directives: which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something ( requesting, questioning) commissives: which commit the speaker to some future course of action (Promising, threatening, offering)
Its cold in here (indirect) I hereby request that you close the window. (Indir.)
Direct or Indirect?
Move out of the way! You make a better door than a window. Pindy!! Youre standing in front of the Tele..
Questions or requests? Could you pass the salt? Would you open this?
Speech events
It is an activity in which participants interact via language in some conventional way to arrive at so me outcome. See page 35 In this case do you have a minute will portray the we mean more than what we say.
politeness
should be understood as strategic conflict-avoidance can be found, for example, in the view that the basic social role of politeness is in its ability to function as a way of controlling potential aggression between interactional parties (Brown & Levinson 1987:1)
Politeness
is connected with avoiding disruption and maintaining the social equilibrium and friendly relations (Leech 1983:17, 82)
politeness
is involved in social indexing, that is, politeness is socially appropriate behavior and what is socially appropriate depends on the speakers social position in relation to the hearer.
Speakers
who see themselves as lower status tend to mark social distance between themselves. status speakers use address forms that include a tittle and a last name, but not the first name (Mrs. Jones, Mr. Adams, Dr. Miller)
Higher
Internal factors (amount of imposition, degree of friendliness) are negotiated during an interaction can result in the initial social distance changing and being marked as less or more during the course of the interaction (e.g., moving to first name basis) - these factors are more relevant to p participants whose social relationships are actually in the process of being worked out within the interaction
Both
types of factors (external/internal) have an influence on what we say and how we are interpreted interpretation includes also evaluations such as 'rude', 'considerate' or 'thoughtful' which represent an additional aspect of communication perceived in terms of politeness
General
idea of politeness:
Fixed concept of social behavior/etiquette within a culture, involves certain general principles as being tactful, generous, modest, sympathetic towards others.
= the public self-image of a person (emotional and social sense of self one has and expects everyone else to recognize)
politeness
-showing awareness for a socially distant person's face , i.e, respect, deference -showing awareness for a socially close person's face, i.e, friendliness, solidarity
Example (student to teacher) a. Excuse me, Mr. Buckingham, but can I talk to you for a minute? b. Hey, Bucky, got a minute Different kinds of politeness are associated and marked linguistically with the assumption of relative social distance/closeness
Social distance
Agreement: minimize disagreement/maximize agreement between self and other Yes, of course youre right, but your decision might make her very unhappy Sympathy: minimize antipathy/maximize sympathy between self and other I was very sorry to hear about your fathers death Additional maxim proposed by Cruse (2000): Consideration: minimize discomfort or displeasure/ maximize comfort or pleasure of other Visitor to patient in hospital: Youre lucky to be in here, its raining outside (Billy Connolly)
Face
Within
everyday social interaction people generally behave as if their expectations concerning their face wants (i.e. public self-image) will be respected. notion of face is derived from Goffman (1967) and the English folk term ("losing face")
The
"the
positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others [from others]assume he has taken during a particular contact...an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes (Goffman 1955/67)
[Face]
is something that is emotionally invested, and that can be lost, maintained, or enhanced, and must be constantly attended to in interaction. In general, people cooperate (and assume each other's cooperation) in maintaining face in interaction, such cooperation being based on the mutual vulnerability of face. (Brown and Levinson 1978:66
Face
is a sense of worth that comes from knowing one's status and reflects concern with the congruency between one's performance or appearance and one's real worth. (Huang 1987:71)
says something that represents a threat to another individual's expectations regarding self-image
speaker says something to lessen a possible threat Situation: Young neighbor is playing loud music late at night. Older couple cannot sleep.
A: I'm going to tell him to stop that awful noise right now! B: Perhaps you could just ask him if he's going to stop soon because it's getting a bit late and people need to get to sleep.
negative
face: need to be independent, to have freedom of action, not be imposed on by others face: need to be accepted/liked, to be treated as a member of the same group, to know that wants are shared by others.
positive
Negative face as the individuals desire for freedom of action and freedom from imposition. positive face as the individuals desire that her/his wants be appreciated in social interaction, and
Negative politeness
A
face saving act oriented to a person's negative face tends to show deference, emphasizes the importance of the other's time or concerns and may include an apology for the imposition
Positive politeness
A
face saving act concerned with the person's positive face will tend to show solidarity, emphasize that both speakers want the same thing and have a common goal
You are about to land in the U.S. You want to fill your immigration form but realize that you do not have a pen. Fortunately, there is a person sitting next to you. First choice: say something or not
rummage
in your bag, search through your pockets, go back to the bag other person offers a pen
Many
people prefer to have their needs recognized by others without having to express them (less imposition) -- clearly a case of communicating more than what is said.
Off record
statements
Uh,
I forgot my pen. Where is the pen. Hmm, I wonder where I put my pen
On record
Directly address the other person to express your needs Using imperative forms is known as bald on record (speaker assumes he/she has power over the other)
Give
Mitigating devices
'please', 'would you') can be used to soften the demand Caution: Not all imperatives are commands
Have
(e.g.
In
Don't
Negative
politeness is concerned with other peoples need not to be intruded or imposed upon politeness is concerned with their need for inclusion and social approval.
Positive
positive politeness strategy leads the requester to appeal to a common goal, even friendship
How
about letting me use you pen? Hey, buddy, I'd appreciate it if you'd let me use your pen
A greater risk of refusal, therefore often preceded by 'getting-to-know-you-talk' to establish common ground
Hi,
How's it going? Okay if I sit here? We must be interested in the same crazy stuff. You take a lot of notes too, huh? Say, do me a big favor and let me use one of your pens
Could you lend me a pen? I'm sorry to bother you, but can I ask you for a pen? I know you're busy, might I ask you if - em - if you happen to have an extra pen
features:
modal verbs - apologies for the imposition - Hesitations - questions (even asking for permission to ask a question) + more indirect approach softens refusal
-
Face
saving acts on record are less direct, longer, less clear, with a more complex structure, showing greater effort, concern for face (politeness)