Health, Safety & Environment (CBB 2012)

TOPIC DATE

: DIFFERENT TYPES OF HAZARDS : 8th AUGUST 2011, MONDAY

LECTURE 7.3A : RADIATION HAZARDS

RADIATION HAZARDS

 INTRODUCTION WHAT IS RADIATION ? IONIZING RADIATION NON - IONIZING RADIATION MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION

INTRODUCTION

SOME OF THE MAGNIFICIENT ACHIEVEMENTS DUE TO RADIATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION X-RAY EQUIPMENT CAT ( COMPUTERIZED AXIAL TOMOGRAPHY ) SCAN MRI ( MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING ) RADIOTHERAPY TRAETMENT FOR CANCER WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TELEVISION LASER APPLICATIONS

 ALONG WITH THE BENEFITS THERE ARE SEVERAL HAZARDS DUE TO RADIATION. WE CANNOT ELIMINATE RADIATION FROM OUR ENVIRONMENT. WE CAN, HOWEVER, REDUCE THE RISKS BY MINIMIZING OUR EXPOSURE TO RADIATION. UNDERSTANDING WHAT IS RADIATION AND WHAT ARE ITS BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS WILL ENABLE US TO GO FOR PROPER PROTECTION.

Tragedies

Tragedies

Tragedies
On 25 April, before a routine shut-down, the reactor Chernobyl-4 was getting prepared for testing for performance under weak power supply - the fact is these reactors were known to be very unstable at low power settings. Flow of coolant water decreased, power output increased, fuel elements ruptured, explosive force of steam lifted off the cover plate of the reactor, releasing fission products to the atmosphere.

Tragedies
A second explosion threw out fragments of burning fuel and graphite from the core and allowed air to enter, causing the graphite moderator to burst into flames.

The Reactor before the accident

Tragedies

The Reactor after the accident

Tragedies

Tragedies

Radiological Incident
Location Hydroelectric Construction Site in Yanango, Peru. Distance from Lima: 300km (East) District: San Romn, Department of Junn. What Happened A non-authorised person unscrewed the screws of the security lock to free the radioactive source of a Gammagraph. No key is needed to remove the source, it can be done with an screwdriver.

Equipments Characteristics
Security Lock

Type: SPEC T-2 Radionucleid: Ir192 Activity Max: 3.7 TBq

Consequences
Overradiation: 1 Person Exposed: 18 People

16 Days After the incident

Effects on Leg (13:00pm 2/21/99)

3/8/99

Effects on Leg (70 days after the incident 5/3/99)

Consequences

Leg Amputation (10/18/99)

Severe Infection 12/14/99

What Went Wrong?

Organisation - Procedures were not implemented. - Absence of Safety Culture in the Companys Management. - Source inspection and measures were inadequate. - Lack of training and qualification of the operators. NATIONAL AUTHORITIES ESTABLISH: The evaluation of the authorisations and inspections should be developed by an experienced and trained team.

WHAT IS RADIATION ?
ATOMS ARE EXTREMELY SMALL PARTICLES. EVERYTHING AROUND US ARE MADEUP OF ATOMS. AT THE CENTER OF EACH ATOM, THERE IS A NUECLEUS WHICH CONTAINS A NUMBER OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS. PROTONS ARE POSITIVELY CHARGED PARTICLES. NEUTRONS HAVE NO ELECTRIC CHARGE. THE CLOUD OF PARTICLES THAT ORBIT THE NUCLEUS ARE CALLED ELECTRONS AND THEY ARE NEGATIVELY CHARGED. NORMALLY, THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS AND PROTONS IS SAME AND THE ATOM IS ELECTRICALLY BALANCED.

WHAT IS RADIATION ?

WHAT IS RADIATION ?
A DELICATE BALANCE OF FORCES AMONG NUCLEAR PARTICLES KEEPS THE NUCLEUS STABLE. HOWEVER, AS A RESULT OF CHEMICAL REACTION, A NEUTRAL ATOM MAY LOSE OR GAIN ONE OR MORE ELECTRONS. IF AN ELECTRON IS LOST, A POSITIVELY CHARGED ION IS PRODUCED; IF AN ELECTRON IS GAINED, A NEGATIVELY CHARGED ION IS PRODUCED. FORMATION OF POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE ION IS KNOWN IONIZATION.

WHAT IS RADIATION ?
WHEN IONIZATION OCCURS, NORMAL ELECTRICAL BALANCE IN AN ATOM GETS AFFECTED AND THE NUCLEUS BECOME UNSTABLE. ATOMS THAT HAVE UNSTABLE NUCLEUS HAVE EXCESS INTERNAL ENERGY. SUCH ATOMS BECOME RADIOACTIVE AND THEY EMIT RADIATION. A RADIOACTIVE ATOM WILL ATTEMPT TO REACH STABILITY BY THROWING OFF NUCLEONS (PROTONS AND NEUTRONS) AS WELL AS OTHER PARTICLES AND RELEASING ENERGY.

WHAT IS RADIATION ?
MANY TYPES OF RADIATION CAN BE FOUND IN THE WORKPLACE AND IN OUR ENVIRONMENT. RADIATION HAVING A WIDE RANGE OF ENERGIES FORM THE ELECTROMAGNIC SPECTRUM. THE SPECTRUM HAS TWO MAJOR DIVISIONS NAMELY IONIZING RADIATION NON - IONIZING RADIATION

IONIZING RADIATION Radiation that falls within Ionizing Radiation range, has enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms thus creating ions. NON - IONIZING RADIATION Radiation that has enough energy to move atoms in a molecule and cause them to vibrate, but not enough to remove electrons, is referred to as Non-Ionizing radiation.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM AND THE CATEGORIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Energy ( Electron Volts )

PROPERTY
Energy in one photon Frequency

IONIZING RADIATION
102 eV to 1010 eV 3(1016) Hz to 3(1024) Hz

NON-IONIZING RADIATION
10 10 eV to 102eV 3(104) Hz to 3(1016) Hz

Wave length

10 16 m to 10 8 m

10 8 m to 104 m

Applications

Power generation Radiotherapy X-Ray equipment Genetic mutation Cancer Tissue damage

Television Radar Wireless communication Less significance

Health hazard

DIFFERENT TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Alpha particles Beta particles Neutrons Gamma radiation X-radiation High-speed electrons High-speed protons

ALPHA PARTICLES - PROPERTIES

Emitted from the nuclei of radioactive atoms. Have high speed and high energy. Cannot penetrate human skin layer. Can be stopped by a sheet of paper. If they enter the body through inhalation, ingestion or wounds, alpha emitters are much hazardous to human health.

BETA PARTICLES - PROPERTIES

Emitted from the nuclei of radioactive atoms, but they are much lesser in mass compared to alpha particles. Have more penetrating power. (human body 1 cm) Like alpha particles, they do internal radiation hazards. Can be stopped by an ordinary wall or aluminum sheet of 1.3 cm thick.

NEUTRON PARTICLES - PROPERTIES

Released upon the disintegration of radioactive isotopes (atoms of elements with different numbers of neutrons) . Highly penetrating and require heavy shielding. Can penetrate human body to several cm. Within the body, they release excess energy which can cause tissue damage.

GAMMA RADIATION - PROPERTIES

Originates in the nucleus of an atom. Can penetrate deeply into human tissue. Can produce burns, alter genes to cause mutation and reduce white blood cells count and encourage infections.

X-RAYS - PROPERTIES
X-Rays are electromagnetic radiation produced when high speed electrons hit the target material like tungsten or copper, inside an X- ray tube. Hard X-ray with short wavelength can penetrate thick steel plate. Soft X-ray with long wavelength are of less penetrative. Lead, Copper, Iron, Zinc and Concrete shielding are used to reduce X-ray penetration.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF NON-IONIZING RADIATION

Visible radiation Ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation Infra-red ( IR ) radiation Radio frequency ( RF ) and Microwave ( MW ) radiation Extremely low frequency ( ELF ) radiation Lasers Video display terminals based radiation

VISIBLE RADIATION - PROPERTIES Visible radiation is the electromagnetic radiation that can produce a visual sensation. It comes from light sources. May cause colour blindness.

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION - PROPERTIES

Common source of UV radiation is the sun. Other sources of UV radiation includes Lasers, Welding arcs and Ultraviolet lamps. Potential problems from UV radiation include sunburn, skin cancer and cataracts. Use of special sunglass can block out UV radiation.

INFRA-RED RADIATION - PROPERTIES * Primary sources of IR radiation are: high-temperature processes such as production of glass and steel. * Causes heat stress, dry skin and eyes. Most IR applications involve heating and drying.

RADIO FREQUENCY (RF) AND MICROWAVE (MW) RADIATION - PROPERTIES

Radio Frequency 3 kHz to 300 MHz Microwave 300 MHz to 300 GHz * RF waves are used for radio communication. * Microwaves are used in ovens and dryers. * Primary health effects of RF and MW are skin damage.

EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCY (ELF) RADIATION - PROPERTIES Because of low frequency (1 Hz to 300 Hz), static electromagnetic fields are created. Electric and Magnetic fields are produced by power lines. Electric field is produced by Voltage and measured in volt per m. Magnetic field is produced by current and measured in Tesla.

LASERS - PROPERTIES
Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation) is a source that emits photons in a coherent beam. Lasers produce high-intensity light radiation with a narrow wavelength band. Lasers are used in the field of medicine, communication and in several industrial applications. Causes thermal threat to eyes. Smoke created by Lasers in some processes can be toxic.

VIDEO DISPLAY TERMINALS BASED RADIATION - PROPERTIES Video display terminals such as Computer Monitor and Television Set are widely used in houses and workplaces. They emit non-ionizing radiation. Levels of radiation are well below the established standards. However, concerns persist about the long-term effects of prolonged and continual exposure to VDT-based radiation.

THE SOURCES OF RADIATION # Natural Radiation # Man-made Radiation

NATURAL RADIATION ( Background Radiation)

COSMIC RADIATION (radiation from space) Charged particles from sun and stars interact with earths atmosphere and produce a shower of radiation. TERRESTRIAL RADIATION Radiation materials are found in soil, water and vegetation. Terrestrial radiation is the radiation emitted by naturally occurring radioactive materials, such as uranium, thorium and radon in the earth

MAN-MADE RADIATION

Bio-medical equipment X-ray CAT (Computerized Axial Topography) scans MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Nuclear weapon test Because of this, air, water and soil get contaminated with radioactive materials. Industries Nuclear power plant Mining industry

MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

WHEN SCIENTISTS MEASURE RADIATION, THEY USE DIFFERENT UNITS DEPENDING ON

the strength or radioactivity of the radiation source the radiation dose absorbed by a person the equivalent dose that counts for biological risk

UNITS FOR MEASURING RADIOACTIVITY Radioactivity or strength of a radiation source is measured in units of Becquerel (Bq). 1 Bq = 1 event of radiation per second One Becquerel is extremely small amount of radioactivity. An old and still popular unit of measuring radioactivity is the Curie (Ci). 1 Ci = 37 GBq

UNITS FOR MEASURING RADIOACTIVITY Becquerel (Bq) or Curie (Ci) is a measure of the rate of radiation emission from a source. During the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident that took place on 26th April, 1986 in Ukraine (at the time part of Soviet Union), an estimated total of 81 106 Ci of radioactive material, Cesium was released.

UNITS FOR MEASURING RADIOACTIVITY RADIATION INTENSITY OF A RADIOACTIVE SOURCE DIMINISHES WITH TIME AS MORE AND MORE RADIOACTIVE ATOMS DECAY AND BECOME STABLE ATOMS. HALF-LIFE IS THE TIME AFTER WHICH THE RADIATION INTENSITY IS REDUCED BY HALF. HALF-LIFE TIME OF MATERIALS RANGES FROM A FEW MINUTES TO EVEN A FEW YEARS.

The equation used to calculate radioactive decay is: where

A = A0

A = present amount of radioactivity

A 0 = original amount of radioactivity

= decay constant = 0.693 / half-life

= the amount of time elapsed from A 0 to A

Sample calculation: We have Phosphorus-32 with activity of 205 mCi on April 2. We want to know the activity that will remain on April 28. The half-life time of Phosphorus-32 is 14.3 days. Here A 0= 205 mCi

= 0.693 / 14.3 = 0.0485 days = 26 days

Then

A = A 0 t= 205

0.0485 x 26

= 58 mCi

UNITS FOR MEASURING ABSORBED DOSE Ionizing radiation interacts with the human body tissues. The amount of energy absorbed per unit weight of the organ or tissue is called absorbed dose. It is expressed in units of Gray (Gy).

UNITS FOR MEASURING ABSORBED DOSE We say that the absorbed dose is one Gray when radiation energy of one joule is absorbed per kilogram of organ or tissue weight. Rad is the old and still used unit of absorbed dose. 1 Rad = 0.01 Gy

EQUIVALENT DOSE Equal amount of absorbed dose of different types of ionizing radiation are not equally harmful. Alpha particles produce more harm than beta particles, gamma rays and x-rays do for a given absorbed dose. Harmful radiation dose is measured as EQUIVALENT DOSE . The unit of equivalent dose is Sievert (Sv).

Equivalent dose in Sievert

absorbed dose in Grey x = radiation weighting factor

Old unit of equivalent dose is Rem. 1 Rem = 0.01 Sv The recommended radiation weighting factors for different types of radiation are shown in the following Table.

TYPE AND ENERGY RANGE Gamma rays and X-rays Beta particles Neutron, energy < 10 kev ... 10 kev to 100 kev . 100 kev to 2 Mev .. 2 Mev to 20 Mev > 20 Mev ..

RECOMMENDED RADIATION WEIGHTING FACTOR 1 1 5 10 20 10 5

Alpha particles

20

The following is the summary of units on measurement of radiation

QUANTITY

SI UNITS and NON-SI SYMBOL UNIT

CONVERSION

Radioactivity

Becquerel, Bq

Curie, Ci

1 Ci = 37 GBq 1 Bq = 27 pCi 1 Rad = 0.01 Gy 1 Gy = 100 Rad 1 Rem = 0.01 Sv 1 Sv = 100 Rem

Absorbed dose Equivalent dose

Gray, Gy Sievert, Sv

Rad Rem

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION EXPOSURE

EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION SHALL RESULT IN INCIDENCE OF CANCER BONE DAMAGE CATARACTS REDUCED LIFE EXPECTANCY DAMAGE TO HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

DIFFERENT LEVEL OF RADIATION EFFECTS

RADIATION EFFECT

SOMATIC
(EFFECT IS ON IRRADIATED PERSON ONLY)

GENETIC/HEREDITY
(EFFECT IS ON CHILDREN AND GRAND-CHILDREN)

EARLY RADIATION EFFECT

(DUE TO HIGH DOSE IN SHORT TIME)

LATE EFFECT
(DUE TO LOW DOSE IN A LONG TIME)

PEOPLE ARE EXPOSED TO RADIATION IN THREE DIFFERENT PATHWAYS

INHALATION INGESTION DIRECT EXPOSURE

RADIATION EXPOSURE
EXPOSURE BY INHALATION OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE BREATHE IN RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES. RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES CAN LODGE IN THE LUNGS AND REMAIN FOR A LONG TIME. AS LONG AS IT REMAINS AND CONTINUE TO DECAY, THE EXPOSURE CONTINUES. INHALED ALPHA AND BETA PARTICLES WILL INCREASE THE RISK OF CANCER.

RADIATION EXPOSURE
EXPOSURE BY INGESTION PATHWAY OCCURS WHEN SOMEONE SWALLOWS RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES ALONG WITH THE FOOD. ALPHA AND BETA EMITTERS ARE MOST CONCERNED INGESTED RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES. THEY RELEASE LARGE AMOUNT OF ENERGY DIRECTLY TO TISSUE CAUSING CELL DAMAGE.

THE THIRD PATHWAY OF CONCERN IS DIRECT OR EXTERNAL EXPOSURE FROM RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS. SOME COMMON WAYS THAT PEOPLE ARE EXPOSED TO RADIATION AND THE ASSOCIATED DOSES ARE: SOURCE OF EXPOSURE
EXPOSURE TO COSMIC RAYS DURING SIX HOURS OF AIR TRAVEL. ONE DENTAL X-RAY ONE CHEST X-RAY ONE MAMMOGRAM

DOSE IN SIEVERT(Sv)
0.03 mSv

0.04 0.15 mSv 0.1 mSv 0.1 mSv

ONE YEAR EXPOSURE TO NATURAL 3 mSv RADIATION ( From soil, cosmic rays etc.)

Threshold Limit Value (TLV) of radiation dose: ANNUAL DOSE = 50 mSv ANNUAL DOSE OVER A PERIOD OF 5 YEARS
= 20 mSv

The effects of being exposed to large dose of radiation at one time (acute exposure) vary with the dose. Some examples are:
100 mSv RISK OF CANCER LATER IN LIFE (1 in 200) 1 Sv 10 Sv RISK OF CANCER LATER (1 in 20) RISK OF DEATH WITHIN DAYS OR WEEKS

PROTECTION FROM IONIZING RADIATION

PROTECTION FROM IONIZING RADIATION

ALTHOUGH EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION CARRIES A RISK, IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO COMPLETELY AVOID EXPOSURE. RADIATION ALWAYS PRESENT IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND ALSO IN OUR BODIES. WE CAN HOWEVER, AVOID UNDUE EXPOSURE AND THEREBY ENSURE THAT TOTAL EXPOSURE OVER A PERIOD OF TIME IS LESS THAN THRESHHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV) DOSIMETER IS A SIMPLE INSTRUMENT WHICH CAN MEASURE EVEN MINUTE AMOUNT OF RADIATION FROM NATURAL AND MAN-MADE SOURCES. THERE ARE FOUR WAYS BY WHICH WE CAN MINIMIZE EXPOSURE TO RADIATION. THEY ARE 1. TIME OF EXPOSURE 3. SHIELDING 2. DISTANCE 4. PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

TIME OF EXPOSURE The longer the time of exposure, the higher the probability of damage.

TLV = Harmful Dose rate at a work location maximum allowable exposure time

Step must be taken to ensure that the exposure time is less than the maximum allowable exposure time.

If needed more number of persons may be employed to do specific task, so that individual exposures are below the maximum allowable limit.

DISTANCE Intensity of radiation

1 DISTANCE2

For example dose the person receives, decreases by four times as his distance from the source increases by two times. A safe distance from radiation sources must be maintained by the employees, based upon the workplace survey.

SHIELDING Barriers of lead, concrete or water give good protection from penetrating radiation such as gamma rays and neutrons. That is why certain radioactive materials are stored or handled under water or in remote control rooms constructed of thick concrete walls or wall lined with lead. There are special plastic shields which can stop beta particles. Inserting proper shield between the employee and the radiation source greatly reduce the radiation dose.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES TO BE FOLLOWED BY EMPLOYERS

ANY WORKAREA WHERE RADIATION DOSE RATE IS EXCESSIVE, SHOULD BE GUARDED BY BARRIERS, SHOULD BE INSTALLED WITH WARNING SIGNS AND SHOULD HAVE SECURITY GUARDS TO RESTRICT ENTRY. WORKERS SHOULD USE DOSIMETERS WHILE OPERATING SEALED RADIATION SOURCES. THE EXPOSURE OF EMPLOYEES TO RADIATION MUST BE CAREFULLY CONTROLLED AND ACCURATELY MONITORED BY THE EMPLOYERS. COMPANIES THAT PRODUCE ,USE, STORE OR TRANSPORT RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS SHOULD INSTALL SIGNALGENERATING SYSTEM TO PRODUCE EVACUATION WARNING SIGNAL AT TIMES OF EMERGENCY.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1 List out the achievements due to radiation of electromagnetic waves. 2 What is radiation ? 3 Distinguish between Ionizing radiation and Non-Ionizing radiation. 4 List out the different types of ionizing radiation. 5 Explain the properties of Alpha particles and Beta particles. 6 List out the different types of non-ionizing radiation.

7 8

Write a note on Ultraviolet radiation. Write a note on Radiofrequency and Microwave radiations.

Comment on Video Display Terminals based radiation.

10 What do you understand by natural radiation and man-made radiation ? 11 Explain the units for measuring the strength of radioactive materials.

12 The half-life period of radioactive Radon is 3.82 days. Radon of strength 800 Ci was noticed on 3rd August 2006. Calculate its strength on i) 11th August 2006. ii) 23rd August 2006.

13 The half-life period of radioactive Cesium is 30 years. a) How long it will take the Cesium to loose at least i) 50 % of its radioactivity ? ii) 80 % of its radioactivity ? b) Find the percentage decrease of radioactivity in 100 years. 14 Write a note on units for measuring the absorbed dose.

15 What do you understand by the equivalent dose and what are its units ? 16 List out the biological effects of ionizing radiation exposure. 17 Discuss the different pathways of radiation exposure. 18 Write a note on Threshold Limit Value of radiation dose. 19 Discuss the role of Time of exposure, Distance and Shielding with regard to radiation exposure. 20 State the precautionary measures to be followed by employers to minimize radiation hazards. the

ANSWERS

12 13

i) 187.4 Ci a) i) 30 years

ii) 21.3 Ci ii) 69.67 years

b) 90.1%