Basic Aerodynamics & Theory of Flight

By Ahmad Ahsan

Course Grading

Marks Distribution

Aircraft Structure

Aircraft structure is required to support two types of load Ground Load: movement on the ground ( taxiing, landing, and towing) Air Loads: loads during flight by maneuvers and gusts Function of Aircraft Structure: To transmit and resist loads. To provide and maintain shape. To protect passengers, payload, and systems from the environmental conditions.

Aircraft Components
A. Fuselage B. Wings C. Empenage or Tail D. Power Plant

E. Landing Gear or
Undercarriage

Vertical Stabilizer Wing Right Aileron Horizonta l Stabilizer Empennag e

Rudder Elevator

Nacelle Fuselage Left Aileron

Landing Propeller Gear

Wing

Main body of airplane

Fuselage

Pilot & cargo compartments Generally constructed in two or more sections

Carries accessories and other equipments

Includes numerous access doors, inspection plates, landing wheel wells, and other openings

Wing
Airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage Main lifting surfaces Various design size and shape May be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage - High-wing, mid-wing, and low-wing The number of wings can also vary

- Monoplanes, biplanes

Empennage - Tailplane

Know n as tail section Consist of

Vertical Stabilizer
Rudder Horizontal Stabilizer

Elevators

Power Plant
A unit or machine that converts chemical energy contains in the fuel to thrust force. Thrust force is essential for moving the airplane forward and producing lift force. With the piston engine, the propeller is used to convert torque at engine shaft to be thrust. With the jet engine, the jet engine output is the thrust force.

Landing Gear

Located underneath of the

fuselage with shock strut

Fixed / Retractable Provides means of landing taxiing Tri- cycle Conventional type Floating gear for seaplane /skiequipped for ice surface landing etc..

Material use in Airframe Construction

Airframe Materials Properties - High Strength to Weight ratio - Light weight - Corrosion Resistant

- Should be non flammable

- High quality

Material use in Airframe Construction

WOOD

STEEL & ITS ALLOYS (Strong)

ALUMINIUM & ITS ALLOY (Commonly used) TITANIUM ALLOYS (Heat Barriers) MAGNESIUM ALLOYS (light and strong) PLASTICS & COMPOSITE MATERIAL (modern

and latest)

Fuselage Structure Detail

TYPES OF STRUCTURE TRUSS TYPE - PRATT TRUSS

- WARREN TRUSS
MONOCOQUE SEMI-MONOCOQUE

TRUSS TYPE
Most early aircraft used this technique with The truss type fuselage frame is assembled with There are two types of truss structure. - PRATT TRUSS wood and wire trusses. members forming a rigid frame e.g. beams, bars, etc

- WARREN TRUSS

PRATT TRUSS
Early aircraft Wooden or metal structure

Heavy weight
Box like structure

Diagonal members of tubing or solid rods

WARREN TRUSS
Conical Type structure Force transfer to other supporting beams Capable to carry tension + compression More space , strength , rigidity Better streamline

MONOCOQUE
In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is the primary structure.

A later

form of

this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy

resin, instead of
plywood, as the skin.

MONOCOQUE

SEMI-MONOCOQUE
This is the preferred method of constructing an allaluminum fuselage. Includes a series of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a

rigid fixture, or jig.

These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers.

These are in turn covered with a skin of sheet

aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives.

SEMI-MONOCOQUE

Fuselage Sections are joined by using fasteners.

Basic Terms
Vertical Members :
Formers: a structural member of an aircraft fuselage, of which a typical fuselage has a series from the nose to the empennage. Typically perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The primary purpose of formers is to establish the

shape of the fuselage, reduce the length of

stringers, and prevent instability.

Vertical Members :

Basic Terms

Frame : The mechanical structure of the aircraft including its fuselage, wings, and empennage.

Bulkhead : A dividing wall within an aircraft or ship.

Longitudinal Members Longerons : longitudinal structural component of an aircraft's fuselage usually along the length of fuselage. Stringers : longitudinal structural components between sections of fuselage.

In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks are an integral part of the wing structure, or consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the wing. Attached to the rear, or trailing, edges of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred to as

Wing Structure

ailerons and flaps.

Empennage
The empennage includes the entire tail group, consisting of fixed surfaces such as the vertical stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer.

The movable surfaces include the rudder, the elevator,

and one or more trim tabs. A second type of empennage design includes a onepiece horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point. ( called stabilator )

Empennage
stabilizer.

Structure

The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical Trim tabs are small, movable portions of the trailing edge of the control surface. These movable trim tabs, which are controlled from the cockpit, reduce

control pressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the

ailerons, the rudder, and/or the elevator.

Spar Ribs Stringers

Stringers Stabilator Skin Spar

The landing gear is the principle support of the

airplane when parked, taxiing, taking off, or when

Landing Gear Structure

landing.
The most common type of landing gear consists of wheels. T The landing gear consists of three wheels two main wheels and a third wheel positioned either at the

front or rear of the airplane.

Landing Gear Types

Landing Gear Types: Tricycle, Tailwheel, Bogey

Landing Gear Types

Landing Gear Types

Other Landing Gear Types : Float & Ski

The power plant usually includes both the engine and the propeller.

Power Plant

The primary function of the engine is to provide the power to turn the propeller. It also generates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for some flight instruments, and in most singleengine airplanes, provides a source of heat for the pilot and passengers. The engine is covered by a cowling, or in the case of some airplanes, surrounded by a nacelle. The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to streamline the flow of air around the engine and to help cool engine.

 Wing Pod Mount Commonly use on commercial airplane since fuel is carried in wing Less noise Bad yawing moment effect Ground clearance limitation higher gear strut

Fuselage Mount Clean wing , shorter take off. No ground clearance limitation
Less yawing effect Weight penalty Aft Cg. and load distribution Cabin Noise and Vibration Fuel pump

The Airfoil
Any surface, such as a wing, propeller, rudder, or even a trim tab, which provides aerodynamic force when it interacts with a moving stream of air. FAA The mean camber line is a line drawn midway between the upper and lower surfaces The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges of the airfoil.

Angle of Attack

The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the average relative wind.

Greater angle of attack creates more lift (up to a point).

 The upper surface of an airplanes wing is designed to have a greater curvature or camber as compared to lower surface. This greater curvature causes air to flow faster over the upper surface. Due to higher speed, the pressure decreases. On the lower pressure, the lesser curvature causes decrease in speed and increase in pressure. This creates Lift

Bernoullis Principle & Airfoil

Four Forces of Flight

LIFT

THRUST

DRAG

WEIGHT

Lift is the force created by the interaction between the wings and Lift

the airflow. It opposes the downward force of weight. Lift is an aerodynamic force and is directly proportional to the square of velocity. It is produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the airfoil. It acts perpendicular to the flight path. Aircraft lift acts through a single point LIFT called the center of pressure. Lift Equation: L= V2A CL

Weight

Weight is the combined load of the aircraft, crew, fuel, passengers, and the cargo. Weight pulls the aircraft downward because of the force of gravity. It opposes lift, and acts through the aircrafts center of gravity (CG) Weight is not constant

WEIGHT

Thrust
Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant,propeller or rotor. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. Direction of thrust depends on design

THRUST

Drag

Drag is a rearward acting force that resists the motion of aircraft through the air. It is an aerodynamic force and like lift varies to square of velocity. Two broad drag classifications. Parasite drag: caused by disruption of airflow by the wing, rotor, fuselage, and other parts of structure. Induced drag: produced as reaction of lift Drag Equation: D= V2A CD

DRAG

Control around the Longitudinal Axis

Assignment

The Ailerons control movement on the lateral axis called rolling.

The End