Reading Theory

Greg Lewis Ogden City Schools

Purpose of Education
In modern times there are opposing views about the practice of education. There is no general agreement about what the young should learn either in relation to virtue or in relation to the best life; nor is it clear whether education ought to be directed more towards the intellect then towards the character of the soul.... And it is not certain whether training should be directed at things useful in life, or at those conducive to virtue, or at non-essentials.... And there is no agreement as to what in fact does tend towards virtue. Men do not all prize most highly the same virtue, so naturally, they differ also about the proper training for it. Aristotle

Why Study Theory?

Theory is a set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or phenomena, especially one that has been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted. American Heritage Dictionary

Why Study Theory? (cont.)

Theory is an explanation of how the facts fit together. More precisely, theorizing about (a topic) means the act of proposing (1) which facts are most important for understanding (that topic) and (2) what sorts of relationships among the facts are most significant for producing this understanding. Theory is what makes sense out of facts. Theory gives facts their meaning. Without theory, facts remain a clutter of disorganized specks on the canvas, unconnected spots that form no picture of how and why children grow up as they do. R. M. Thomas (1996)

The Importance of Theory in Education

Teachers with a firm grasp of educational and psychological theories have a clear basis for making instructional decisions. Their understanding of educational theory provides them with a foundation for understanding why they are choosing the instructional practices that they use. Such theoretically based instructional decisions are linked to exemplary literacy instruction and improved literacy learning.
(Allington, Wharton, McDonald, Block, & Morrow, 2001)

Most Teachers Do Not Understand Their Own Theory

Bigge and Shermis (1992) found that teachers who are unaware of the theories that drive their instruction are often unable to provide a coherent explanation for why they choose one set of instructional procedures or materials over another.

Reason for Multiple Theory Lenses

Tierney (1994) noted that the field of literacy learning seemed to have passed beyond the search for a single theory or model of reading that could comprehensively explain all the phenomena.

Reason for Multiple Theory Lenses (cont.)

Painting Metaphor
Each piece of artwork is different Some are realistic, others impressionist, or abstract style Each of the theories and models provides a unique and valuable perspective on the topic.

Reason for Multiple Theory Lenses (cont.)

Drives behavior & practices Some theories mesh between each other and others do not Some theories work for some children With no theory there is no validity in assessment Theories provide frameworkit is why basals work

Early Theories (400 B.C.-1899)

Mental Discipline Theory
Idealism, Perennialism Aim of education is the disciplining of the mind, the development of the ability to reason, and the pursuit of truth. The curriculum comes from the great books of western civilization and the classic works of literature and art. Plato

Early Theories (400 B.C.-1899)

Mental Discipline Theory (cont.)
Activities
Practice Skills Homework Time on Task Repeated Reading

Early Theories (400 B.C.-1899)

Associationism
Events become associated with each other & form learning Aristotle
Contiguityideas occur together in time or space Similarityideas have similar features & properties Contractassociation by opposition

John Locke (1632-1704)Tabula Rosa, Blank Tablet theory

Early Theories (400 B.C.-1899)

Associationism (cont.)
Activities
Webbing Brainstorming T-chart Background Knowledge

Early Theories (400 B.C.-1899)

Unfoldment Theory
Learning is facilitated through a natural unfolding of the mind based on individual curiosity and interest Rousseau (1712-1778), wrote Emile (1762) about a boy raised in nature Pestalozzi (1746-1827), child-centered learning with adult structure & instruction Froebel (1782-1852), coined kindergarten, importance of play

Early Theories (400 B.C.-1899)

Unfoldment Theory (cont.)
Activities
Centers Home School Manipulatives Play Centers Montessori Schools Regalia

Early Theories (400 B.C.-1899)

Structuralism Theory
The study of perception to explain how the mind works vs. what reading is happening J. M. Cattell, word reading in sentences is faster than isolated word reading Javal, eye movement studies, eye jumps or saccade Quantz, eye-voice span, the time lapse between reading and vocalization

Early Theories (400 B.C.-1899)

Structuralism Theory (cont.)
Activities
Change font size Assisted reading Colored overlays

Behaviorism (1900-1950)
Type of Associationism Classical Conditioning Theory
Ivan Pavlov, John Watson Reading is a behavior composed of isolated skills that can be reinforced Assumptions
Behavior is a reaction to stimuli External stimuli can be manipulated to strengthen or reduce a behavior

Behaviorism (1900-1950)
Classical Conditioning Theory
Activities
Positive, success-oriented experiences No negative associations

Behaviorism (1900-1950)
Connectionism Theory
Edward Thorndikes Law of Effect or Principle of Reinforcement
Law of Readiness, tasks easy to difficult Law of Identical Elements, more similarities the more transfer Law of Exercise, the more S-R practice the stronger the bonds

Behaviorism (1900-1950)
Connectionism Theory
Activities
Sequencing based on task difficulty Sight words Worksheets to fill in target word Catch them being good I see _________ on task

Behaviorism (1900-1950)
Operant Conditioning Theory
B. F. Skinner, the stimulus causing a response cannot always be identifiedthere are natural behaviors People actively operate on their environment to produce different kinds of consequences (operants) Reading viewed as a complex act consisting of component parts Teachers are scientific managers

Behaviorism (1900-1950)
Operant Conditioning Theory
Activities
Direct Instruction, Programmed Learning Incentives/Consequences Behavioral Objectives Shapingreward for gross approximations Chaininghooking small acts together to compose a complex skill Educational Software

Constructivism
Active Construction of Knowledge Learning occurs when individuals integrate new knowledge with existing knowledge Learner must be actively engaged Problem-based (Dewey used occupations)

Constructivism
Inquiry Learning (cont.) Activities
Problem-based Learning Collaboration/Cooperative Learning Literature Circles

Learning is not an occasional event, to be stimulated, provoked, or reinforced. Learning is what the brain does naturally, continually. Frank Smith (1971)

Constructivism
Schema Theory People organize everything into schemas, or knowledge structures Differences in existing schema greatly influences learning
Accretationno need to change schema, simply add knowledge Tuningschema modified to incorporate new knowledge Restructuringnew schema created (stereotype broken)

Constructivism
Schema Theory (cont.) Activities
Brainstorming Webbing Comprehension focus Background knowledge

Constructivism
Transactional/Reader Response Theory Louise Rosenblatt Every reading experience is unique to each individual (different schema)
Efferent responsefact oriented Aesthetic responsepersonal/emotional

Constructivism
Transactional/Reader Response Theory (cont.) Activities
Reading response activities Mind movies Project book reviews

Constructivism
Psycholinguistic Theory Ken Goodman Whole-language Theory Assumes reading is a natural language process Immerse students in high-quality literacy environments Miscue Analysis

Constructivism
Psycholinguistic Theory (cont.) Activities
Authentic, meaningful tasks Predictions Miscue analysis Reading/writing workshop Literacy rich class environment Portfolios

Constructivism
Metacognition Process of thinking about ones thinking Deloros Durkin found that in a traditional reading comprehension lesson, the lesson is teacher dependent. Students never independently comprehend

Constructivism
Metacognition (cont.) Activities
Self-monitoring of comprehension Fix-up strategies Strategy instruction Explicit instruction

Constructivism
Engagement Theory Readers who are engaged are intrinsically motivated and read more frequently (500% more) Engaged readers are mentally active (metacognition) Engaged readers are social

Constructivism
Engagement Theory (cont.) Activities
Themes Student choice (read and respond) Hands-on activities Wide variety of genres Social collaboration KWL

Theories of Literacy Development

Cognitive development occurs in stages Piaget Biological maturation

Theories of Literacy Development

Maturation Theory Morphett & Washburn Postpone reading until students are old enough Optimal mental age6 years, 6 months Dominant from 1930-1960

Theories of Literacy Development

Maturation Theory (cont.) Activities
Waiting Developmental spelling

Theories of Literacy Development

Theory of Literacy Development Holdaway Literacy development should begin at home Gross approximations should be encouraged

Theories of Literacy Development

Theory of Literacy Development (cont.) Activities
Big books Shared reading

Theories of Literacy Development

Stage Models of Reading Emergent Stage Letter Name-Alphabetic Stage Within Word Pattern Stage Syllable and Affix Stage Derivational Relations Stage Words Their Way

Theories of Literacy Development

Stage Models of Reading (cont.) Activities
Environmental Print Assessment Small-group targeted instruction

Theories of Literacy Development

Emergent Literacy Theory Marie Clay Development of listening, speaking, reading, and writing are interrelated Development starts at birth and is ongoing Concept of print stressed

Theories of Literacy Development

Emergent Literacy Theory (cont.) Activities
Concepts of Print Literacy Rich Environments

Theories of Literacy Development

Family Literacy Theory Studies the relationship between families and literacy Activities
Parent involvement Family stories

Social Learning Theories

Theories focused on social interactions Oral language is the foundation of reading Social process of communication stressed Uses language experience activities

Social Learning Theories

Socio-cultural Theory Emphasizes role of social, cultural, and historical factors Focus more on culture than language interactions Layers of influence nest like Russian Dolls (Brenfenbrenner)
Microsystem (home or classroom) Mesosystem (interaction between home and classroom) Exosystem (parents work situation)

Avoid deficit perspective

Social Learning Theories

Socio-cultural Theory (cont.) Activities
Literature circles Background knowledge from diverse learners

Social Learning Theories

Social Constructivism Lev Vygotsky Whereas Piaget described the child as a little scientist, constructing an understanding of the world largely alone, Vygotsky suggested that cognitive development depends much more on interactions with the people in the childs world and the tools that the culture provides to support thinking. Childrens knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through interaction with others Woolfolk (1997) Zone of proximal development

Social Learning Theories

Social Constructivism Activities
Cross-age tutors Buddy reading ZPD Scaffolding Differentiated Instruction

Social Learning Theories

Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura combined behaviorism with social learning Behavioral explanations did not explain vicarious learning Observational learning
Attention phasestudent watches Retention phasestudent processes what they have seen Reproduction phasestudent repeats behavior Reinforcement phasestudent reinforces behavior

Social Learning Theories

Critical Literacy Theory Paulo Freire The image of schooling as an opportunity for social mobility based on merit is replaced, in critical thought, by one that shows how schools reproduce the unequal distribution of wealth and power that is the hallmark of capitalist societies, and in so doing contribute to the maintenance of the status quo (Siegel and Fernandex, 2000)

Social Learning Theories

Critical Literacy Theory (cont.) Activities
Teach about social and political consequences of literacy achievement and illiteracy Student voice/culture/story Literacy centers Morning meetings E-mail pals

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Only information that receives attention in short term memory will be retained Long-term memory is encoded as schemas Memory decayvulnerable to loss over time Computer models

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Substrata-Factor Model of Reading Identify variables and sub-variables correlated to reading ability Predict reading ability Activities
Diagnostics DIBELS

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Rauding Theory Quantifying the reading process Five cognitive skills
Skimming Scanning Rauding Learning Memorizing

Rauding = Typical reading

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Rauding Theory (cont.) Activities
Fluency training Text level
Matched to ability level Easy enough to maintain adequate rate

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Goughs Model Bottom-up information processing model Reading progresses through discreet stages Activities
Letter identification Decoding instruction

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Goughs Model (cont.)

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Automatic Information Processing Model Bottom-up model Three memories
Phonological memory (sound/grapheme) Episodic memory (context) Semantic memory (backgroud knowledge)

The reader switches attention back and forth between decoding and comprehension Activities
Guided reading instruction

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Automatic Information Processing Model (cont.)

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Interactive Model First non-linear model Higher levels influence lower levels Activities
Context clues Cloze techniques

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Interactive Model (cont.)

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Interactive-Compensatory Model Top-down model Reading process is driven by what is in the readers head not by print Emphasizes background knowledge Heavy reliance on the reader If one processor isnt working, another processor can compensate

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Interactive-Compensatory Model Activities
Flexible, strategic readers Background knowledge Whole language Cloze exercises

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Orthographic Processing Perspective Process through which readers see a printed word and connect it to its pronunciation stored in memory Recoding, decoding, sounding out Activities
Decoding Phonics instruction

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Verbal Efficiency Theory Explains individual differences in reading ability Three assumptions
Word recognition skills are related to speech access The amount of time it takes a reader to read an isolated word aloud is indicative of how well the reader knows the word (vocalization latency) The readers decoding skill is the major source of variation in his or her vocalization latency

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Construction Integration Model Student constructs representations or understandings Following construction phase, the reader moves into the integration phase Activities
Comprehension instruction Visualization

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Phonological-Core Variable Difference Model Dyslexiathe IQ discrepant model is false Primary difference is phonological Mathew effects TermPhonemic Awareness

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Phonological-Core Variable Difference Model Activities
PA development Matthew effects Reading Recovery Flexible reading Poetry

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Parallel Distributed Processing Model Computer Modeling Cognitive information is stored as a series of connections between units Connections between units become stronger and faster with repeated pairings Inner voice Processors are all interactive and compensatory

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Parallel Distributed Processing Model

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Parallel Distributed Processing Model Activities
Word families Rereading

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Dual-Route Cascaded Model Computer has two routes for processing text input
One path for words already known One path for unknown words or non-words

Activities
Sight-word instruction

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Double-Deficit Hypothesis Reading-disabled children also suffer from a deficit in rapid naming skills 3 categories of deficits
Phonological Naming speed Both (Double Deficit)

Activities
Interventions matched to deficit

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Neuroscientific Theories Sally Shaywitz Brain imaging technology Patterns of neural activity are thought to correspond to particular mental states or mental representations. Learning broadly comprises changes in connectivity, either viea changes in potentiation at the synapses or via the strengthening or pruning of connections. Successful teaching thus directly affects brain functioning by changing connectivity (Goswami, 2004)

Information/Cognitive Processing Theories

Neuroscientific Theories Activities
Neuro examinations to inform instruction