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Significance
The significance of this investigative question is that; The eye and brain function in the working memory which takes place in the frontal cortex and coordinates long term memories with sights, sounds, and feelings. It is also more humane to use an animal to examine and obtain physical experience in the composition of the brain/eye than using an actual human brain/eye for the study.
Cornea
Transparent covering
Sclera
White of the eye
Adipose tissue
Cushions the eye
choroid
Vascularized layer of the eye.
Tapetum lucidum
retina
Iris
Colored area of the eye when the lens is pushed aside
Ciliary bodies
Suspensory ligaments
Vitreous humor
Gelatinous material
Optic nerve
lens
Focuses image
pupil
Opening surrounded by iris when the lens is pushed aside.
MENINGES
The cranial meninges are layers of membranes that surrounds the brain and act to protect it. They include: 1. Dura mater 2. Subdural space 3. Arachnoid mater 4. Subarachnoid mater 5. Pia mater
Dura Mater is the outermost of the meninges. This thick, durable layer is tough protective sleeve for the brain. In the cranium the dura mater is made up of two layers between which are formed the dural venous sinuses. One of the sinuses is the superior sagittal sinus, which courses through the double layered dura mater. The outer layer of the dura mater is continuous with the cranial periosterum.2 Subdural Space is the space between the arachnoid mater and the dura mater. This space may not exist in a living human. Arachnoid mater is the middle meninx. It has a gauzy spidery-cobweb like consistency. It is distinguishable at the gross level, and covers the brain. Subarachnoid space is the space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater in which cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates. Cerebral blood vessels are located within the subarachnoid space. Pia mater is the inner most meninx. This thin, soft and transparent layer is intimately associated with the neural tissue and is not distinguishable at the gross anatomical level. It gives the neural tissue a shiny appearance. Pia mater follows convulsions of the gyri and Sulci of the cerebral hemisphere.
Arterial blood
Arterial blood reaches the brain from two sources: 1. The internal coratid artery, which is a branch of the common coratid artery that enters the cranium through the coratid canal. The artery reaches the base of the brain through either side of the sella turcica. 2. The vertebral artery is the first branch of the subclavian artery. It passes through the transverse foramina of cervical vertebrae to enter the cranium through the foramina magnum.
Circle of Willis
It is also called cerebral arterial circle. It is a circular anastomosis between the internal coratid and the vertebral arteries, which provide a continuous blood supply to the brain. It consists specifically named and communicating arteries. Vertebral arteries enter the cranial cavity through the foramina magnum. Basilar artery forms from the union of the vertebral arteries, and passes over the ventral surface of the pons. Posterior cerebral arteries are branches of the basilar arteries. They supply the posterior of the brain. Posterior communicating arteries are branches of the posterior cerebral arteries. Internal coratid arteries enter the cranium through the coratid canal. Middle cerebral arteries are branches of the internal coratid arteries. Anterior cerebral arteries are also branches of the internal coratid arteries. Anterior Communicating artery connects the anterior cerebral arteries with each other.
Venous Blood
Route of drainage of venous blood from the brain: The cerebral veins carry deoxygenated blood from the brain into the system of dural venous sinuses. Dural venous sinuses form a network of channels formed between the two layers of dura mater. Only the cranial dura mater contains sinuses and therefore the 2-layered regions are present only in the cranium. These sinuses receive venous drainage from the cerebral veins and ultimately carry the deoxygenated blood out of the cranium through the jugular foramina and into the internal jugular veins. The inner surface of the cranium has grooves formed by some of the dural venous sinuses. Some of the major structures in the cranial meninges are: superior sagittal sinus, transverse sinuses, jugular foramina and internal jugular vein.
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
The Cerebral hemispheres are two convoluted masses of neural tissue separated in the midsagittal plane by the longitudinal fissure. In the whole brain, gently spread the longitudinal fissure and look from above to see the superior surface of the corpus callosum. Gray Matter of the cerebral hemispheres comprises the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is made up primarily of neural cell bodies.
Gray Mater
Gyri are the ridges which rise between the sulci of the cerebral cortex. Two important gyri are: The precentral gyrus which is located just anterior to the central sulcus. It is the primary motor cortex and functions in conscious, voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles. Pyeramidal cells are a type of neuron located in the precentral gyrus. The Postcentral gyrus is located just posterior to the central sulcus. The postcentral gyrus is the primary somatosensory cortex. The postcentral gyrus receives sensory information from touch, pressure, pain, and temperature receptors Sulci are conspicuous grooves etched in the cerebral cortex. Especially deep sulci are called fissures. The central sulcus is a deep groove between the precentral and postcentral gyrus. It separated the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain. The lateral sulcus is a deep groove separating the parietal and frontal lobes from the temporal lobe. The insula lobe of the brain is located deep to the lateral sulcus.
Lateral sulci
Conspicuous grooves
Longitudinal fissure
Separates the two hemispheres of the brain
Gyri
ridges
2. 3. 4. 5.
Occipital lobe
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
THE DIENCEPHALON
The diencephalon is also called the between brain. Consists mainly of two masses of nuclei i.e. 1. Thalamus which is composed of two egg shaped structures, each consisting of over a dozen individual nuclei. It is located just rostal (toward the nose) to the midbrain. 2. The Hypothalamus which is a bilaterally located group of nuclei lying inferior to the thalamus. It also forms part of the wall of the third ventricle.
Corpus callosum
Thalamus
1. The thalami function primarily as somatosensory relay station and send somatosensory information to the cerebral cortex for processing. 2. The thalami also form part of the walls of the third ventricle. 3. The intermediate mass is a connection between the two thalami across the third ventricle. This structure is not present in all people.
Intermediate mass
Pituitary gland
Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus
Hypothalamus controls release of a number of hormones, controls output of the ANS (sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions). It includes 1. The Optic chiasm is formed by the decussation of fibers of the optic nerve and is located inferior to the hypothalamus. The optic chiasm forms the anterior boundary of the hypothalamus 2. Hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland by the infundibulum. It is located along inferior aspect of hypothalamus. 3. The mammillary bodies are a pair of rounded nuclear masses located inferior to the hypothalamus. They resemble small peas and are part of the Limbic system. They function in the sense of smell.
Third Ventricle
Lateral ventricle
THE CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is located inferior to the posterior part of the cerebrum. It functions in posture, coordination and balance. White matter within the cerebellum branches extensively and is called the arbor vitae. The cerebellum has neural connections with the pons and medulla oblongata.
Cerebellum
Processes skill memories
Arbor vitae
Corpus callosum
THE BRAINSTEM
The brainstem is a lower brain region consisting of the midbrain, pons and the medulla oblongata. It is continuous superiorly with the thalamus and inferiorly with the spinal cord. The brainstem contains nuclei of cranial nerves III-XII. The Fibers of these same cranial nerves may be seen along the ventral surface of the brainstem.
Brain stem
Consists pons, medulla oblongata and midbrain
Third Ventricle
The Midbrain
The mid brain is the portion of the brainstem inferior to the thalamus. It contains nuclei of the oculomotor and trochlear nerves. 1. The cerebral peduncles are columns of neural tissue consisting primary of descending motor tracts. They form the neck of the midbrain and are located just above the pons and below the thalamus. 2. The substantia nigra is pigmented tissue located deep to the cerebral peduncles consisting of dopamine-producing cells. 3. The corpora quadrigemina are two pairs of rounded structures with nuclei involved in visual and auditory pathways. They are located along the dorsal aspect of the mid brain. Superior colliculi is involved in eye movements when tracking a moving object whereas the inferior colliculi is involved with head movement in response to auditory stimuli. 4. The cerebral aqueduct is a long tube-like structure connecting the third and fourth ventricles; located just ventral to the superior and inferior colliculi. CSF from third and fourth ventricles flows through the cerebral aqueduct.
The Pons
The pons is inferior to the midbrain. It contains nuclei of the trigeminal (V), abducens (VI) and facial (VII) nerves. It also includes projection fibers that make connections between various parts of the brain, especially the cerebellum. 1. The basilar pons is a rounded ventral region made of many nuclei and tracts. 2. Cerebellar peduncles are 3-paired (superior, middle and inferior) bundles of tracts, which pass to and from the cerebellum. The middle cerebellum is the largest. 3. The dorsal surface of the pons forms part of the ventral wall of the fourth ventricle.
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
The Medulla oblongata is inferior to the pons and contains the nuclei of the cranial nerves: vestibulocochlear (VIII), glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), accessory (XI), and hypoglossal (XII). 1. The pyramids of the medulla are ventrally located columns containing descending motor neurons. Crossing over of motor tracts causes voluntary movement on one side to be controlled by opposite side of the brain. 2. The medulla oblongata houses nuclei of the respiratory and cardiovascular control centers. 3. The dorsal surface of the medulla oblongata forms part of the ventral wall of the fourth ventricle as does the pons.
Medulla oblongata
Fourth Ventricle
Cranial Nerves
Cranial nerves originate from the brain and extend to peripheral organs. They contain sensory, motor or parasympathetic fibers, either singly or in some combination. They are located within the brainstem and the fibers of cranial nerves III-XII appear to emerge from the brainstem along its ventral and lateral surfaces.
Cranial Nerve
I Olfactory II Optic III Oculomotor IV Trochlear V - Trigeminal VI Abducens VII Facial VIII Vestibulocochlear
Function
Sensory special sense of smell Sensory special sense of sight Motor Motor Both sensory & motor Motor Both sensory & motor Sensory special sense of hearing
IX - Glossopharyngeal X Vagus
XI Accessory XII Hypoglossal