Chapter 4

Enzymes and Energy

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Enzymes

Biological catalysts. Increase rate of chemical reactions. Most enzymes are proteins with diverse structure.

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Biological Catalyst

Chemical that:

Increases the rate of a reaction. Is not changed at the end of the reaction. Does not change the nature of the reaction or final result. Lowers the activation energy required. Amount of energy required for a reaction to proceed.

Activation energy:

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Activation Energy

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

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Each type of enzyme has has a characteristic 3-dimensional shape (conformation). Has ridges, grooves, pockets lined with specific amino acids. Pockets active in catalyzing a reaction are called the active sites of the enzyme.

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

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Lock-and-key model of enzyme activity: Reactant molecules (substrates) have specific shapes to fit into the active sites.

Substrate fits into active sites in enzyme. Enzyme-substrate complex dissociates. Products of reaction formed and free enzyme.

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Naming of Enzymes

Enzyme name ends with ase. Classes of enzymes named according to activity. Enzymes that have the same activity in different organs may make different models called isoenzymes.

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Control of Enzyme Activity

Rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions measured by the rate substrates are converted to products.

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Control of Enzyme Activity

Factors influencing rate:

Temperature pH [cofactors and coenzyme] [enzyme and substrate] Stimulatory and inhibitory effects of products

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Effect of Temperature

Increase in temperature increases rate of reaction. At body temperature, plateaus. Denature at high temperatures.

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pH

Each enzyme exhibits peak activity at narrow pH range (pH optimum). Optimum pH reflects the pH of the body fluid in which the enzyme is found.

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Cofactors and Coenzymes

Cofactor:

Attachment of cofactor causes a conformational change in enzyme. Participate in temporary bonds between enzyme and substrate. Cofactors that are organic molecules derived from niacin, riboflavin and other H20 soluble vitamins.

Coenzymes:

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Substrate Concentration

Rate of product formation will increase as the [substrate]. Plateau of maximum velocity occurs when enzyme is saturated.

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Reversible Reactions

H20 + C02

ca

H2C03

Direction of reversible reaction depends on the concentration of molecules to the left and right of the arrows.

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Sequence of enzymatic reactions that begins with initial substrate, progresses through intermediates and end with a final product.

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An intermediate can serve as substrate for 2 different enzymes, producing 2 different products.

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Negative feedback inhibition. One of the final products inhibits the activity of the branch enzyme. Prevents final product accumulation.

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Inborn Errors of Metabolism

Inherited defect in a gene. Quantity of intermediates formed prior to the defect increases. Final product decreases, producing a deficiency.

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Cannot produce tyrosine, PKU results. Cannot produce melanin, albinism results.

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Bioenergetics

Flow of energy in living systems. 1st law of thermodynamics:

Energy can be transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. Energy transformations increase entropy. Free energy can be used to do work.

2nd law of thermodynamics:

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Endergonic Reactions

Chemical reactions that require an input of energy. Products must contain more free energy than reactants.

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Exergonic Reactions

Convert molecules with more free energy to molecules with less. Release energy in the form of heat. Heat is measured in calories. Calorie:

Amount of heat to raise the temperature of one cubic centimeter of H20 one degree Celsius.

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Coupled Reactions: ATP

Cells cannot use heat for energy. Require energy released in exergonic reactions (ATP) to be directly transferred to chemicalbond energy in the products of endergonic reactions.

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Universal energy carrier of the cell.

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Oxidation-Reduction

Reduced: Molecule/atom gains electrons. Reducing agent: Molecule/atom that donates electrons. Oxidized: Molecule/atom loses electrons. Oxidizing agent: Molecule/atom that accepts electrons. May involve the transfer of H+ rather than free electrons.

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Reduced form.

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Oxidized form.